Index of references to London in Global Information Space with daily updates

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New headings with London from Top 1,000,000 websites extracted on 2019-12-20

# Headings H1-H6 Count
Palace: Prince Philip 98 admitted to a London hospital 38
BLAST Premier details inaugural event in London 7
London East 6
London-based experience designer solving problems with beautiful user-centric web products 5
Vert Fougère – нов моќен мирис од брендот Floris London 5
Jo Malone London Vetiver amp Golden Vanilla 5
Top Free must visit places in London 5
Over 10000 drivers in London register on Ola 5
Top must Do amp see things in London 5
New In London and Hospital Stories VLOGMAS19 4
London: Wareysi Maxamed Aar – Hanaanka Dawladnimada 4
Deputatın ailəsi ölkəni tərk edib Londonda məskunlaşıb – SƏNƏD 4
8 Fabulous Things To Do In London On Christmas Day 4
London Star Sweatshirt 4
5 of London’s creative industry leaders give their predictions for 2020 4
This Diwali Menu at ‘Mint Leaf of London’… 4
Leadenhall Street Bank London 4
Pride in London goes carbon neutral 4
5 Magical Places to Ice Skate In London This Christmas 4
The Tower of London – 1000 long years… 4
Kipchoge Set to Defend London Marathon Title in 2020 4
Top Places to visit in London with Kids 4
ARTETA BERLABUH KE MERIAM LONDON AUBAMEYANG MENJAUH 4
London Fashion Week 4
Britanski princ Philip 98 primljen u londonsku bolnicu 4
London’s Point A Hotel In Kensington Is Ideally Located For Exploring The Museums » 3
Continuous Lifecycle London 2020: First speakers revealed for our tip-top conference on DevOps CI/CD – and more 3
Harry Kane And Eden Hazard Feature In A Star-Studded New Nike Advert Set In London 3
Palace: Prince Philip 98 admitted to London hospital as ‘precautionary measure’ 3
Top 10 Attractions in London 3
CATHY LONDON Girl’s Cotton Hand Bag amp Wallet Combo Medium 3
Top 10 Must-See Attractions in London for Business Travelers 3
Sahar Moghaddas and her sister in London 3
Lauren London Honors Nipsey in Puma Collab 3
Overnight fire hits London home raided by police in Hells Angels-linked illegal gambling probe 3
London West 3
London bus homophobic attack: Teen who brutally assaulted lesbian couple spared jail 3
Newmark Group Inc Acquires Leading London Firm Harper Dennis Hobbs Strengthens Retail Presence in Global Cities 3
The Delegation from Ministry of Mining attended at the “Metals and Mining” conference in London 3
Londoner at centre of sweeping police arrests for alleged 131M gambling ring 3
LONDON IS EXPENSIVE – Here’s What You Need to Know Before You Go 3
Colton student musicians headed to London New Year’s Day Parade 3
We’re located in London UK 3
Consultants appointed to develop masterplan for London Road Industrial Estate 3
Easton Street Clerkenwell London 2
Life As A Local London Edition: Beer Mile 2
Brunch in London 2
The Top 15 Most Instagrammable Restaurants in London 2
Uber Loses License To Operate In London Over Safety Concerns Vows To Appeal 2
Style Is The Answer To Everything: Harry Styles Live In London 2
Đối tác có mặt tại London đã rõ tương lai phù thủy thất sủng Arsenal 2
Gallery: Chaplains offer comfort in London after terror attack 2
Джин London № 1 premium 070л 2
Malta United States and Italy top league table of exhibitor nations as international industry prepares for ICE London 2
12 Magical Days of Christmas in London 2
Our top 5 Antipodean cafes in London! 2
no6-londoncom 2
Wardour Street Soho London 2
EXHIBITION: LONDON: AUTOGRAPH 2
85 Great Portland StreetFirst FloorLondonW1W 7LT 2
£135m up for grabs for London’s 2021 and 2023 Boroughs of Culture 2
1 Bedroom Apartment Rental in City – London LN-287 -:- 1 2
Liverpool Street London 2
Celebrity Dresses – Daisy Ridley at Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker Premiere in London 2
Nước hoa nam Laurelle H Him 100ml – Nước hoa chính hãng Laurelle London 2
Packing Essentials for a Winter Trip To London 2
Day Trip London 2
High Holborn Holborn London 2
We Adore London Fall Fashion 2
Hal-hal Gratis yang Bisa Kalian Lakukan di London 2
Long Lane Borough London 2
New London Real Estate 2
Canon Collins University of London LLM Masters by Distance Learning Scholarships 2020 for African Students 2
Warwick Street Soho London 2
Horseferry Road Westminster London 2
Heathrow Luxury Transfer – Copthorne Tara Hotel London Millennium Hotels 2
Russian Firm Puts London Bounty Call for Runaway Oligarch 2
Broadwick Street Soho London 2
London Mayor’s plan outlines digital infrastructure aims for the capital 2
Download Film From London to Bali 2017 Tersedia 2
MBA London 2
Nước hoa nữ Laurelle London Forever Together 100ml – Nước hoa chính hãng Anh 2
London Taxi Kick Bike – Blue DISKON – Tanpa Wheels Stand 2
Finsbury Market London 2
Patak’s hands BMB London creative account 2
Nước hoa nữ Sexxy Shoo Black 30ml- Nước hoa chính hãng Laurelle London 2
Palace: 98-year-old Prince Philip admitted to a London hospital for treatment of pre-existing condition as a precaution 2
Web Design Company London 2
Event: LONDON: AUTOGRAPH 2
Indian Accent London: Continues to Delight 2
Ebook London Love Story 2
Christopher Street Shoreditch London 2
London Tourism Video // Visit Britain amp Matador Network 2
FRISSÍTVE – Jóváhagyta a Brexit-megállapodás alapelveit a londoni alsóház 2
The London Coalition Against Poverty 2
Millbank Westminster London 2
Prince Philip 98 rushed to London hospital just as Queen was about to reach Sandringham for Christmas celebrations 2
iGB Affiliate London 2
Nước hoa nam Laurelle London Royale 100ml – Nước hoa chính hãng Laurelle London 2
Startups of London 2
98-årige prins Philip indlagt til observation i London 2
London Heathrow to 2
Huawei Buka 5G Innovation and Experience Centre di London 2
Harry Potter Cast Reunite in London 2
Prince Philip taken to hospital from Norfolk to London 2
Uber’s troubles are far bigger than its London fiasco 2
Dr Alan Belfield Chair of Arup Group brings global business experience to London First board 2
Nice Places to Eat in London 2
Mines and Money: London – Review 2
Restaurants in Covent Garden London 2
Hanover Square Mayfair London 2
Leah London 2
Mór London Dry Gin 2
Condé Nast partners with London AdTech startup 2
Nước hoa nữ chính hãng Laurelle London Together Forver 100ml 2
Overnight fire hits London home raided by police in Hells 2
Chaos at London Embassy 2
The best free museums to visit in London 2
5 London Neighbourhoods You Need To Explore 2
Reminder: Spiritual Discussion to Take Place at London Cathedral on Thursday 12th December 2
0800 779 House 160 City Road London United Kingdom EC1V 2NX 2
En Mary Poppins-Guide till London 2
True or False: London Calling 2
Uber has again been denied license renewal in London over safety 2
Share Christmas By The River at London Bridge City 2
Finest Live Audio Pubs Inside London Ontario – Exactly what are You Looking forward to 2
London UKManaging Partner 2
OptimiseLondon 2
Traveling Solo as a Trans Woman in London 2
Meet the startups that pitched at EF’s 10th Demo Day in London 2
Syd’s coffee stall to go on display at the Museum of London after 100 years 2
Peter London’s gift of dance to the community 2
Eastcastle Street Oxford Circus London 2
Charterhouse Street Faringdon London 2
Nước hoa nam Voice Male 100ml – Nước hoa chính hãng Laurelle London 2
Classic London Tour 2
Nước hoa Sexxy Shoo Red 100ml-Nước hoa chính hãng Laurelle London 2
The Ultimate Checklist for Traveling to London 2
XFM 1049 London 2
Adam Beyer – Drumcode Radio 484 Drumcode Halloween Tobacco Dock London – 08-NOV-2019 2
Uber Loses License In London: 43 Fake Drivers Undertook 14000 Trips 2
London Travel Diaries: 15 of the Most Instagrammable Places 2
NORTH LONDON FOOTBALL CLUBS EXPERIENCE – London England 29 March 2020 – 1 April 2020 2
Win a 5-course gourmet dinner for 2 in London! 2
Two dead and two injured in London stabbings 2
Sloane Street Knightsbridge London 2
Londonska firma smislila trotoar koji proizvodi struju od koraka prolaznika 2
Company No: 08853923 Registered Address: Frugl Limited 85 Great Portland Street London England W1W 7LT 2
Dev Blog: FFXIV Fan Gathering at the Postal Museum in London 2
Jo Malone London 100ml EDP 2
Mansell Street Aldgate London 2
Wakiilo Ka Socda Koox Turki Ah Oo Soo Gaaray London amp Xiddig Miisaan Leh Oo Ay Amaah Uga Doonayaan Arsenal 2
Prince Philip Transferred to London Hospital for ‘Preexisting Condition’ 2
1 Bedroom Apartment Rental in Blackfriars City – London LN-649 -:- 1 2
Bressenden Place Victoria London 2
Bishopsgate Liverpool Street London 2
Basinghall Street London 2
Britanski princ Philip primljen u londonsku bolnicu 2
KARIM LONDON 2
Tamiltimes – London 2
From London 2
Worship Street Shoreditch London 2
Oglasio se i Emeri šta kaže o zemljaku koji ga je nasledio na severu Londona 2
Liverpool Street City of London 2
Uber Loses Licence to Operate in London 2
London’s Westminster Council wins appeal against merry Christmas for SwiftStack staff: Enterprise cloud storage biz axes workers amid strategy shift 2
How to Find the Best Locations in London 2
ICC World Cup 2019 Team India Depart For London From Mumbai 2
El Corazon® Kaleidoscope® MoYou London® – artnailby 2
Programa de Enfermería recibe visita de profesores de King’s College London 2
London 2015 2
A Week in My Life: Tom Stevenson Account Director for EMEA Stein IAS London 2
Meuble de sejour LONDON 2
Eat Stay and Play the Preholiday Way in London 2
Pentonville Road Angel London 2
Dover Street Mayfair London 2
2020 London Alumni Weekend – 70 Years of IES Abroad 2
London Baby londonbaby 2
Yardley London English Blossom Lotion 200mlB 2
Londonski kritičari su nominovali 2
Nová podzimní kolekce značky Bessie London 2
Emilia Clarke Is Heading To The London Stage In 2020 2
Park Street Mayfair London 2
London UKPartner 2
Η Jo Malone London boutique στη Λευκωσία είναι γεγονός 2
London Love Story 3 2018 2
Berkeley Street Mayfair London 2
The Best Seaside Escapes You Can Reach From London 2
Five Reasons I’m Hoping to Move To London 2
We ship from London Gatwick UKand Warsaw Poland 2
London Kills 2
Nước hoa nữ chính hãng Laurelle London Eternal Love 100ml 2
Nigerian born hollywood actor John Boyega and his family rocks Agbada and traditional attire for the London premiere of Star Wars – The Rise Of Skywalker 2
Southend: Streik am Flughafen London über Weihnachten 2
NORTH LONDON FOOTBALL CLUBS EXPERIENCE – London England 29 March 2020 2
London Calling 2
Old Broad Street Liverpool Street London 2
How to find Best Foods in London China Town at night 2
London to Lisbon 2
Northholt Park London 2
Why Bath Is The Perfect Weekend Escape From London 2
London Paddington to Heathrow Central in 15 mins 2
8 วัน เที่ยวลอนดอน London และรอบ ๆ Clinical Terminology เช่น SNOMED CT 2
London Attractions With Teens: Scavenger Hunt Anyone 2
Dronning Elizabeths mand er indlagt i London 2
Christmas at The London Transport Museum 2
4 reasons why you need to get commercial cleaning in London 2
London Business Directory 2
Prince Philip taken to hospital in London 2
The Best Things To Do In London in Autumn 2
1920 London 2016 Bollywood Movie 2
Jóváhagyta a Brexit-megállapodás alapelveit a londoni alsóház 2
City Road Shoreditch London 2
Staying in Soho London at The Nadler Soho Hotel 2
Yardley London English Musk Lotion 200ml 2
Best budget places to stay in central London 2
London School of Commerce 2
Yardley London English Lvender Lotion 200ml 2
Maxaa laga filan karaa Shirka London 1
Lisa Kay London Collection 1
London-based education consultancy 1
Fintech boom drives surge in take-up of London’s office space 1
Fabric London // New Resident Portraits 1
Things to do in World Famous City London 1
News of Dawn’s Powerful Workshop on 23rd June Chelsea London UK 16:00-18:00 1
AD:TECH LONDON September 2013 1
Expert Evidence 36 Old Park Avenue London SW12 8RH – Telephone 44 20 7884 1000 1
RONNIES MOTORSEAST LONDON 1
Вагинальные шарики hi-tech с персональным тренером вагинальных мышц Gballs 2 App – FT London 1
IBA Hosts Talk By Dr Ayesha Siddiqi Of London University 1
There is no better one-Zoe at London 2012-English version 1
London Book Festival Winner 1
Business Incredible new Harrogate to London rail services for passeng Graham Chalmers 1
London Grammar – Maybe 1
Palace: Prince Philip admitted to a London hospital 1
Why visit London 1
MVFall19: London Fall Must Haves 1
CoinGeek Conference London 1
Media Martini: LinkedIn Becomes A Platisher Google’s New Ad Exchange Spotify The Times of London 1
Tidy Models Ltd Kemp House 152-160 City Road London EC1V 2NX 1
Welcome To West London Cars Serving Acton and surrounding areas of London 1
Graeme Souness reveals who Arsenal should have appointed as new manager instead of Mikel Arteta FootballLondon 1
London School of Dance 1
Hi I’m Josh McCartney – a London-based Nothern England born senior art director and former baby 1
London Assembly 1
Erotic Massage in West London – Grand Massage 1
A Tourism Portal For London 1
Planlegger Europas største grønne vegg i London 1
Domestic Cleaning Services in London 1
London’s environmental record under the spotlight 1
Deadly Stink and Life-Saving Aromas in 17th-Century Plague-Stricken London 1
London – United Kingdom 1
Happy Box London 1
Nevjerojatna priča iz Londona evo što povezuje čelnika Tottenhama Levyja s plantažom marihuane i narko dilerima 1
Video – Puma amp BoomCase in London 1
Mario amp Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games USA Multi-Español 3DS ROM CIA 1
Welcome to ‘This is London’ 1
London Office Cleaning 1
London 2020 September Telugu Calendar 1
London United Kingdom The Stratford Hotel 1
Every word Jose Mourinho said on Alderweireld other new contracts Ndombele Lloris and Chelsea FootballLondon 1
20 things you probably didn’t know about the London Tube 1
Genevieve Nnaji screens ‘Lionheart’ at Bonhams African Art in London Posted By Dj Valentino 1
London amp Exeter ON Drivers GMC Buick Chevrolet amp Cadillac Vehicles Will Suit You 1
Hours Of Are Exeter Lucan London amp Grand Bend’s Go-To Vehicle Source 1
This is what a cinema in London did out of frustration to attracts people come to the cinema when Olympic fever causing more and more people sticking their butts at home watching TV 1
WWE RAW comes to London 1
London Revealed 1
Uber Has Yet Another Competitor in London: This Time Bolt 1
This London hotel has just one room 1
Transport for London 1
DoubleTree by Hilton London — West End 1
Welcome to London School of Commerce 1
Huawei Honor Changwan 7C LDN London-AL30A 800171C00 Supported Firmware 1
Sweet New Christmas Spot Migros’ ‘Finn’ for Passion London 1
Made with ❤ in Toronto London amp Melbourne 1
London based managed IT supplier 1
Video of Suspect Shot by Police on London Bridge Following Knife Attack 1
Hanson Search: London 1
Luxury London Apartments At Walpole Mayfair Adelto Living 1
We are in London 1
The London Reign 1
Things To Do This Weekend In London: 14-15 December 2019 1
Paris / London – Testame 1
Find a London Office LLP 1
Is the new Novotel the tallest hotel in London 1
Gabriel Boudier London Dry Gin 1
Cool and Free places to visit in London NozbeHOW 1
Mourners pay tribute to London Bridge terror attack victim 1
Life-On Healthcare Ltd is a dietary supplements company based in London After years of researching the market working with expert health researchers and formulation specialists our formulations of dietary supplements bring well-being and health benefits to you and your family Life On Healthcare striving to excel human lives was established in this background to bring about high quality and scientifically validated nutritional health supplements with premium quality ingredients providing improvement in wellness of life health and fitness Life On products are manufactured to Good Manufacturing Practice GMP and in a MHRA approved facility in UK Life On range is designed and formulated by using the most scientific information available from EFSA Life On have provided quality nutritional products to the UK market and foreign consumers via marketing/distribution partners in different countries world-wide meeting the needs of consumers round the globe Life On uses only premium quality graded vitamins and ingredients Life On dedication to excellence insists that our nutritional supplements meet the highest standards and criteria 1
Eliud Kipchoge reckons a London Marathon world-record attempt is possible in 2020 1
Sudbury Wolves vs London Knights – December 20 1
SAVILLS SHOWCASES LONDON TO INVESTORS ACROSS THE MENA REGION 1
24/7 Reactive Maintenance Services in London 1
Help London’s homeless 1
London Taxi Hangouts Goes to Museum Prasasti Juli 2017 1
BOOK TICKETS FOR COINGEEK LONDON 1
Europe Brentford London UK Oosterhout Netherland 1
London Recommendations 1
Remade in London 1
serviced apartments London – Don’t Pay More While Staying At London for Any Reason 1
London and Paris with Highclere Castle 1
Today Girls Directory offer Dating Service in London Manchester Leeds … 1
Using Umbraco to help a London Exchange listed manufacturer to expand its digital presence 1
17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT Tel : 44 0207 871 3515 1
Book Talk by Senior Lecturer at University of London Dr Ayesha Siddiqi at IBA 1
Happy Brexmas: Auch das politische London blickt Weihnachten entgegen Kein Wunder also dass sich Joseph Afrane ein Pro-Brexit-Aktivist eine Weihnachtsmann-Mütze aufgesetzt hat und allen Passanten vor dem britischen Parlament «Happy Brexmas Everyone» wünscht 1
Into the Lion’s Den: London Colonialism and Walking Walls 1
Presented by Willy Pogány London nd c1910-1920 1
Building excitement for the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park London 1
How can we solve London’s housing crisis 1
LONDON TEXTILE FAIR 1
Letter from London 1
Why you should hire a limo service in London Heathrow for special occasions 1
Punk Rock in London 1
MANDALA MEDITATION DAYSVICTORIA LONDONDates:TBC​FOR MORE INFO OR TO BOOK: CLICK HERE 1
Glossier Pops-Up in London 1
London Scenes 1
London Cleaning Housekeeping Any Chore 1
West London Cars Service 1
Microphone Hire London For Live Concert and Recorded 1
Get Brighter Smile from London’s Best Dentists 1
100 Queen’s Gate Hotel LondonCurio Collection by Hilton 1
AW19 HUDSON LONDON EDIT 1
MUSIC: Moseso Uprise Ft Egyptian – Adikpo London Boy Prod solaceangi 1
The London Book Fair 2017 One Year On… 1
TV Talent Ltd London Company Number 8267780 1
12 companies at the heart of London’s FinTech boom 1
Cosy Cinemas for those Cold London Nights 1
Vintage and Antique jewellery in the heart of London 1
Download Film From London To bali 2017 Full Movie Mp4 1
Christmas Competitions Day Eight: Win a Keep for Two at The Royal Horseguards Lodge London 1
2 killed 2 injured in London stabbings 1
House price growth falls to the lowest level in seven years amid London’s decline 1
An Indiebride London Dress and Veil for a Cosy Laidback and Relaxed South London Pub Wedding 1
The New York Times: Media Corong Korporasi Global AS Dalam Mendukung Setiap Penggulingan Para Pemimpin “Kalah” di Arena KTT NATO di London 1
Search Chalo London 1
National Grid announce contractors for £1bn project to rewire London 1
Starboy Ft Wizkid amp Electric – London 1
Gathering on Sundays in Central London 1
Perverted Couple Caught Having Sex On A London Train In Front Of Children 1
Property predictions for London in 2020 1
Unpicking the City of London’s tax contribution 1
British Council accredited English coursesin London Eastbourne and Dublin 1
Why Are North London Pest Problems Getting So Bad 1
Exclusive – Millie Mackintosh out and about London 1
Somali-British poet Momtaza Mehri named young people’s laureate for London 1
Large Format Printing London 1
226 explicit BoneQuest 276 00:01:03 / 2016-07-05 02:00 some dude from london on grilldos ostensibly inebriated in hotel delfino 1
The Caledonian Sleeper – The Best Way To Travel From London To Edinburgh by Train 1
Banner Printing London 1
WELCOME TO LONDON 1
The Hostess World next stop: London 1
Анонсирован бой Паул Крейг vs Райан Спенн на UFC London 1
RHS Chelsea Flower Show London: All Things Bright and Beautiful 1
About high tea in the sky and being seated together as a family on Virgin Atlantic from London to Seattle 1
Which is one of the best boutique hotels in London that Centrally located have nearest tube luxury facilities 1
We Exporting Valve in Ahmedabad Australia Argentina Austria Belgium Bangalore Bulgaria Canada Chennai China Chile Colombia Czechia Coimbatore Dammam Denmark Delhi Egypt Europe France Finland Gujarat Germany Greece Hubli Hyderabad Hong Kong Houston Hungary Italy India Indonesia Iran Israel Ireland Jalandhar Japan Jaipur Jalandhar Kuwait Korea Kolkata Karnataka Kerala Ksa Saudi Arabia Ludhiana London Louisiana Lithuania Mexico Maharashtra Mumbai Mysore Massachusetts Malaysia New Zealand Navi Mumbai Nagpur Nashik Nigeria Netherlands Norway Oman Oklahoma Ontario Ohio Pennsylvania Pune Poland Philippines Puerto Rico Portugal Poland Peru Qatar Rajkot Rabale Russia Romania Russia Serbia Switzerland Sweden Spain South Africa Sri Lanka Singapore Satara South Korea Switzerland Thailand Tamilnadu Taiwan Turkey Trichy United States Usa United Arab Emirates Uae United Kingdom Uk Ukraine Venezuela Vietnam Vasai Vadodara 1
Kape Barako Warung Kopi Dadakan di London 1
London: Circa 1968 1
The London Vape Company – Holloway Road 1
Cheap Floor Tests for Businesses and Lawyers available in In all Major UK Cities and nearby Towns including Floor Testing in Scotland – Aberdeen Glasgow Edinburgh Perth Stirling Inverness and fife / Floor Safety Risk Assessments in North East England – Middlesborough South Shields Newcastle Stockton on Tees Darlington / Floor Pendulum Testing in North West England – Manchester Lancaster Liverpool Runcorn Preston Blackpool Blackburn Bury Bolton Warrington Widnes StHelens Cheshire Birkenhead Ellesmere Port Chester Crewe Oldham Stockport Trafford Park Rochdale Congleton Sandbach Macclesfield / Floor Pendulum Tests in Wales in Cardiff Newport Swansea Colwyn Rhyl Bangor / Pendulum Floor Slip Tests in Northern Central England – Sheffield Leeds Bradford Yorkshire Rotherham Wakefield / Slip Resistance Testing in East England in Hull Humberside and Lincoln / BS7976-2 Pendulum Tests in the Midlands in– Nottingham Derby Rugby Stoke Stafford Birmingham Wolverhampton Worcester / Pendulum Flooring Tests in Central England – Northampton Rugby Derby Oxford Cambridge Peterborough / HSE and BS7976 Approved Floor Testing in London and Home Counties – Watford Milton Keynes StAlbans Cambridge Newbury Reading Andover Heathrow / Slip Injury Floor Tests in South England – Portsmouth Brighton Eastbourne Southampton Bournemouth Salisbury Isle of Man / Floor Testing in Slip Accident Claims in South West England – Swindon Bristol Bath Plymouth Exeter Falmouth Cheltenham Gloucester Taunton Warwick / Cheap Floor Testing in South East England – Dover Margate Rochester Folkestone Hastings Tunbridge Wells 1
Startups of London – Office Visits and Founder Interviews 1
Elton John London 1
We are London Studio We are PlayStation technology pioneers 1
Let one of our 500 qualified and knowledgeable Blue Badge Tourist Guides show you the best of London and beyond 1
TICKET TO RIDE LONDON 31DAYSOFGIFTS 1
Bats And Broccoli: Exploring London’s ‘Ghost Stations 1
Things To Do Today In London: Friday 20 December 2019 1
Reino Unido: Becas Para Maestría en Artes University of the Arts London 1
Garuda Indonesia Pertimbangkan Menutup Rute London 1
IOC sanctions one athlete for failing anti-doping tests at London 2012 1
Interview: VE Schwab on revisiting Red London in The Steel Prince 1
Eco-Aware Wedding Suppliers and Exhibitors at MOST CURIOUS London Part 1 of 2 1
Zašto je London jedna od najljepših destinacija za provesti božićne blagdane 1
Enter the “Your Ticket to RootsTech LONDON 2019” Giveaway 1
PhanTom Edition London 1
Combined Payroll Theory Sage Payroll – London Classroom Course 1
Cycle Fix London 1
British Premier Boris Johnson worships at Hindu temple in London 1
Naija-London Base Juju Act Tosin Harmony Survives Ghastly Accident in the United States 1
VX Garden 71 75 Shelton Street London United place de La Défense Maison de La Défense 92974 Paris la Défense Technique 1
London Irish ASSE win 1st ever Title 1
Courses in London 1
Dream World Travel: Best Travel Agency London UK 1
Rivers Of London: Action at a distance Vol7 Graphic Novel 1
Facts About Interesting Day Trips from London 1
Meet The Woman Behind London Finance Solutions 1
The LoudestNew Year’s Eve in London 1
Peter Bennett London Translations Limited 1
friendly sales and services in London 1
Welcome to Happy Box London the home of creative gift ideas and packaging We’re delighted that you’re here And given that we want more than anything else to make people happy we hope you’ll be delighted with what you find 1
The legendary Fiat 600 Multipla conquers London 1
Hotels In London: Choose From Burlesque and Cabaret And Let Your Wild Side Show 1
Slingsby London Dry Gin 1
Customer Experience World: London UK 1
Glass Replacement London 1
Warpaint London down on profit update 1
London’s Leicester Square prepares for Christmas fun 1
London Days Out 1
Fire Risk Assessments in London 1
Film London Has Fallen 2016 Bluray 720p Subtitle Indonesia 1
Sevgili Martin Eden’e / Jack London – Martin Eden Kitap İncelemesi 1
Accountants London – The Accountancy Solutions 1
Həmyerlimiz Londonda keçirilən mükafatlandırma mərasimində 1-ci yerin qalibi seçildi 1
26 Twinkling Photos Of London’s Gorgeous Christmas Lights 1
Pankhurst London 1
New Year’s concert moved from Grand Bend to London 1
London School of Dance was established in 1966 by Director and Founder Gwen Owens We continue our tradition of excellence with our second generation Co-Director Misty Owens and her New York City dance experience 1
Reino Unido: Becas Para Posgrado en Varios Temas King’s College London 1
Explore this one-day workshop delivered in London 1
The Aldwych station tour – London’s secret station 1
Premier League: Build up to weekend’s London derby between Chelsea and Tottenham Hotspur 1
Top Digital Marketing Agency in London 1
Trinity College London 1
Talk at Logan Symposium 2014 London 1
Best Cleaning Services In London 1
Duffy London launches the UP Coffee Table 1
Milkmen Return In London To Slash Single-Use Plastic Waste 1
At the demise of empire City of London financial interests created a web of secrecy jurisdictions that captured wealth from across the globe and hid it in a web of offshore islands Today up to half of global offshore wealth is hidden in British jurisdictions and Britain and its dependencies are the largest global players in the world of international finance The Spider’s Web was written directed and produced by Michael Oswald you can sponsor his future films on Liberapay supports one time donations and Patreon: Share this documentary with your friends and ask sites to feature it: The Spider’s Web was substantially inspired by Nicholas Shaxson’s book Treasure Islands you can read an extract of it here: Translate this documentary here on youtube or contact us for the srt file infoqueuepolitelycom For those interested to learn more about tax justice and financial secrecy read about the Tax Justice Network’s campaigning and regular blogs – become part of the movement for change and listen to the Tax Justice Network’s monthly podcast/radio show the Taxcast Review on Filmotomy: Review on Open Democracy: Website: wwwspiderswebfilmcom German Version: Spanish Version: French Version: Italian Version: Subtitles: French Spanish German Italian Russian Arabic Korean Hungarian English Turkish Portugese 1
Big Ben London 1
‘The Witcher’ London Premiere: All Pics amp Videos 1
London Bike Tours 1
From London to Bali 2017 1
Why follow our London guide 1
Bing Crosby amp London Symphony Orchestra 1
exhibitions london 1
Looking for a VISA to visit London 1
Visitors guide to London 1
LONDON’S SPOOKIEST PLACES 1
London Eye tickets 1
Great views from London 1
Employee Engagement Summit 2020 in London 1
Highly Commended at the RICS Awards London 1
Breaking News: ‘Van hits pedestrians’ on London Bridge in ‘Major Incident’ » 1
London Interventional Clinic 1
Eating out Rob Harkavy reviews 10 Greek Street Soho London 1
Best Dressed Men In London 1
Hi I’m Toby I gained my Paramedic registration in 2012 after which I spent 4 years working full time in London on Ambulances and Fast Response Units where I first met Andy After transferring to a locum contract I enrolled in a MSc in Global Health at Maastricht University in the Netherlands and spent time at Kasturba Medical School in Manipal India After completing my studies I went back to London to work for the Ambulance Service and Intern for a Global Health NGO Realising my love for travel and paramedicine I began teaching and providing medical support in a variety of countries in Europe Africa and Asia – often with Andy and Andrei My interests include climbing snowboarding surfing more recently horse riding and anything that gets me outdoors! 1
London Needs you Alive 1
Ronnie Wood Jack Broadbent at O2 Shepherd’s Bush Empire London 1
London gt Amsterdam London gt Amsterdam From 2299€ 1
This Love And Loss Story On The London Underground Is Going Popular On Twitter 1
All Your London Office Space Needs 1
Annual Publishing Conference 9th October 2019 London 1
Gedung London Sumatera 1
Serviced apartments In the heart of Chelsea London 1
Bauhaus confirm London amp NYC shows 1
Riverton theater and dance student headed to London for study abroad program 1
Hidden London 1
London event hall 1
15 best nightclubs in London 1
london hotels featured: 1
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Strategies For Competing In International Markets HERO GROUP Perusahaan menghadapi banyak alternatif dalam cara berpartisipasi di pasar internasional Mereka yang mempunyai pengalaman dalam pemasaran internasional menyadari bahwa perlu melakukan pemasaran tanpa memperdulikan pengaturan penetapan pemasok Perusahaan yang berikan komitmen pada pemasaran mempelajari pelanggan di luar negeri akibatnya mempunyai pengetahuan yang amat mendalam mengenai pasar luar negeri yang bukan asing lagi tetapi merupakan pasar yang terletak pada lokasi geografi tertentu seperti pasar yang lain ini merupakan aplikasi mendasar dari konsep pemasaran Bila diterapkan keadaan ini menghasilkan perumusan strategi pemasaran yang mengintegrasikan unsur produk harga distribusi dan promosi dengan cara tepat konsisten dengan kekuatan dan kelemahan perusahaan dan produk di samping kenyataan persaingan Cara Memasuki Ekspansi internasional Suatu perusahaan yang bermaksud melakukan ekspansi usahanya ke luar negeri dapat menempuh beberapa alternative metode sebagai berikut: 1 Mengekspor Banyak perusahaan industri mengawali ekspansi internasionalnya dengan mengekspor barang dan jasa mereka ke negara lain Mengekspor merupakan bentuk pengoperasian secara internasional yang paling tradisional dan sudah sering diiaksanakan Sebuah perusahaan mungkin terlibat dalam mengekspor secara langsung artinya penjualan antara perusahaan tersebut dan distributor atau pelanggan negara kedua yang berfungsi sebagai pengimpor Sebuah perusahaan dikatakan melakukan ekspor secara tidak langsung kalau penjualan iewat perantara yang berada di negaranya sendiri 2 Memberi Lisensi Memberi lisensi merupakan alternatif strategi memasuki suatu negara dan perluasan dengan daya tarik yang cukup besar Sebuah perusahaan dengan teknologi pengetahuan atau merek yang mempunyai citra kuat dapat menggunakan persetujuan memberikan lisensi untuk menggantikan sumber laba tanpa investasi dan biaya yang amat kecil Bahkan sebenarnya memberikan lisensi merupakan pengembalian investasi tanpa batas 3 Franchising waralaba Waralaba hampir sama dengan pemberian lisensi Bedanya selain menghibahkan izin penggunaan nama proses metode atau merk perusahaan induk membantu penerima waralaba dalam operasi atau pasok bahan mentah Pemberi waralaba biasanya lebih memiliki control terhadap kualitas produk daripada hanya memberikan lisensi Sama dengan lisensi penerima waralaba membayar sejumlah komisi dan sebagian tertentu dari penjualan/penerimaan yang diperolehnya kepada perusahaan pemberi waralaba 4 Usaha Patungan Usaha patungan bisa dipakai sebagai sumber pasokan untuk pasar negara ketiga Hal ini harus dipikirkan masak-masak terlebih dahulu Salah satu alasan utama dari perceraian usaha patungan adalah perselisihan mengenai pasar negara ketiga dimana kedua Mitra ini saling berhadapan sebagai pesaing yang sebenarnya atau pesaing potensial Untuk menghindari ini rencana perlu dibuat untuk mendekati pasar negara ketiga sebagai bagian dari persetujuan usaha patungan 5 Cabang yang dimiliki Penuh Dengan mendirikan cabang di luar negeri yang dimiliki penuh suatu perusahaan dapat menjaga control menyeluruh terhadap pemasaran penentuan harga keputusan produksi dan mempertahankan teknologi Akibatnya perusahaan juga berhak mendapatkan 100 laba yang dihasilkan oleh cabangnya di luar negeri 6 Kepemilikan Memiliki perusahaan sendiri memerlukan komitmen modal dan usaha manajerial paling besar serta menawarkan cara paling penuh untuk partisipasi dalam sebuah pasar Perusahaan dapat bergerak dari strategi pemberian lisensi atau usaha patungan sampai kepemilikan agar dapat mencapai perluasan yang lebih cepat disebuah pasar pengendalian yang lebih besar atau laba yang lebih tinggi Profil The Hero Group Hero Group adalah nama merek yang digunakan oleh Munjal bersaudara yang muncul pada tahun 1956 Munjal bersaudara memulai bisnis ini dengan pembuatan komponen sepeda di tahun 1940-an dan hari ini mereka dikenal sebagai produsen sepeda terbesar di dunia Filosofi The Group adalah: Untuk menyediakan transportasi yang sangat baik untuk orang-orang biasa dengan harga terjangkau dan mudah untuk memberikan kepuasan total dalam semua bidang kegiatannya Hero Group telah mampu unggul terutama di sepeda motor dan manufaktur Mereka telah menerima banyak penghargaan termasuk Sepeda Pencipta penghargaan tahun untuk terus 6 tahun 2001-2006 oleh majalah Overdrive Upaya dan kerja keras mereka dalam setiap bidang dapat dilihat seperti itu adalah peringkat ke-4 dalam Overall Best Managed Company kategori peringkat 3 rd di Best Manajemen Keuangan dan kategori Best Efisiensi Operasional peringkat ke-6 dalam Keseluruhan Terbaik Investor Relations Kategori oleh Asiamoney pada tahun 2002 Gaya manajemen yang diadopsi oleh Hero Group telah dipuji secara internasional maupun oleh organisasi yang berbeda seperti Bank Dunia dan BBC Inggris Acclaiming sebagai panutan dalam pengembangan penjual internasional Di London Business School Inggris Dan Insead Perancis itu dipelajari sebagai studi kasus sebagai model kewirausahaan Hero Group telah dianggap sebagai salah satu dari sepuluh departemen roda dua yaitu Hero Honda Motors telah menerima peringkat tertinggi untuk Corporate Governance pada tahun 2003 dan Best diatur penghargaan Perusahaan di sektor swasta pada tahun 2004 oleh CRISIL yang India ‘S Leading Penilaian Risiko dan Penasehat Perusahaan The Herogroup telah menerima penghargaan tidak hanya di pasar domestik tetapi juga telah menerima penghargaan untuk keunggulan dalam perdagangan internasional Teknik Ekspor Dewan Promosi telah dianugerahi Pahlawan Siklus dengan Terbaik Eksportir Award untuk 28 tahun terakhir berturut-turut Visi The Hero Group : “The Hero Group terus berjuang untuk sinergi antara teknologi sistem dan sumber daya manusia untuk menyediakan produk dan layanan yang memenuhi kualitas kinerja dan aspirasi harga pelanggan Meskipun demikian kami menjaga standar etika yang tertinggi dan tanggung jawab sosial terus berinovasi produk dan proses dan mengembangkan tim yang membuat momentum akan mengambil kelompok untuk keunggulan dalam segala sesuatu yang kita lakukan Strategi Hero Group masuk di pasar internasional Setelah sukses kelompok di pasar domestik Munjal bersaudara mencari pasar Internasional untuk pertumbuhan lebih lanjut untuk mencapai penjualan tambahan dan untuk memperpanjang siklus hidup produk nya Untuk masuk ke pasar global Grup Pahlawan menggunakan salah satu sederhana dan umum mode masuk pasar ekspor yaitu sampai tahun 1960-an tidak ada banyak perusahaan India dalam mengekspor sepeda Tapi setelah 1963 ketika Hero Group mulai mengekspor sepeda era baru ekspor mulai di segmen sepeda India Hero Group pada awalnya mulai mengekspor ke Afrika dan Timur Tengah tapi sekarang ada ekspor utama adalah Eropa dan Amerika Untuk memenuhi persyaratan di pasar internasional kelompok ini telah terus berubah ke teknologi yang lebih baru dan lebih baik Hal ini juga telah mengambil beberapa langkah tambahan seperti menyiapkan Satuan khusus Berorientasi Ekspor EOU bernama Gujarat Siklus Limited sekarang Munjal Auto Industries Limited untuk mengatasi dengan persyaratan standar internasional Bidang utama di mana unit ini ekspor produk manufaktur adalah di pasar negara maju seperti Perancis Jerman Inggris dll di mana persyaratan dari standar yang tinggi Pilihan Strategi Hero Group untuk Memasuki dan Bersaing di Pasar Asing Ada beberapa pilihan strategis umum untuk sebuah perusahaan yang memutuskan untuk memperluas luar yang pasar domestik dan bersaing secara internasional atau global: Menjaga satu negara basis produksi nasional dan ekspor barang ke pasar luar negeri baik menggunakan milik perusahaan atau saluran distribusi maju dikuasai asing Lisensi perusahaan asing untuk menggunakan teknologi perusahaan atau untuk memproduksi dan mendistribusikan produk perusahaan Menggunakan strategi waralaba Ikuti strategi multinegara – berbagai pendekatan strategis perusahaan dari negara ke negara sesuai dengan kondisi lokal dan selera yang berbeda pembeli dan preferensi Ikuti strategi global – pada dasarnya menggunakan pendekatan strategi bersaing sama di semua pasar negara dimana perusahaan memiliki kehadiran Gunakan aliansi strategis atau joint venture dengan perusahaan asing sebagai kendaraan utama untuk memasuki pasar luar negeri – dan mungkin menggunakan mereka sebagai pengaturan strategis yang sedang berlangsung Menggunakan Aliansi Strategis Internasional dan Joint Ventures untuk Membangun Kekuatan Kompetitif di Pasar asing Secara historis perusahaan ekspor di negara-negara industri berpikiran mencari aliansi dengan perusahaan-perusahaan dalam waktu kurang negara-negara maju untuk mengimpor dan memasarkan produk mereka persetujuan lokal tersebut sering diperlukan untuk memenangkan persetujuan untuk masuk dari pemerintah negara tuan rumah Daya tarik strategis perjanjian kerjasama antara perusahaan domestik dan asing: Mendapatkan akses yang lebih baik ke pasar perusahaan yang menarik Untuk mencapai skala ekonomis dalam produksi dan / atau pemasaran Untuk mengisi kesenjangan dalam keahlian teknis dan / atau pengetahuan pasar lokal Untuk berbagi fasilitas distribusi dan jaringan dealer dan untuk saling menguatkan satu sama akses mitra untuk pembeli Aliansi dapat menjadi cara yang sangat berguna untuk perusahaan di seluruh dunia untuk mendapatkan kesepakatan pada standar teknis yang penting 3 Apa yang membuat aliansi lintas-perbatasan yang menarik sarana strategis untuk mendapatkan jenis di atas manfaat adalah bahwa masuk ke aliansi dan kemitraan strategis memungkinkan perusahaan untuk melestarikan kemerdekaannya 4 Risiko dari Aliansi Strategis dengan Mitra asing: Aliansi dan joint venture dengan mitra asing memiliki perangkap mereka Hero Group terus berupaya untuk mendapatkan kepercayaan dan memenuhi kepuasan pelanggan bersama dengan semangat untuk memberikan produk terbaik kepada pelanggan melalui inovasi dan teknologi terbaru telah menjadi 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Table of Contents: Introduction Josef Müller Brockmann Max Bill Richard P Lohse Armin Hofmann Emil Ruder Karl Gerstner Hans Neuberg Carlo Vivarelli Wim Crouwel and the Dutch Total Grid Lella Valle Massimo Vignelli Pierre Mendell Alberto Longhi The Revival of Swiss Grid System in the Cyberspace Neville Brody’s Anti-Swiss Crusade Introduction After the second world war the Swiss Grid Style also known as the International Typographic Style was developed by Swiss designers such as Armin Hofmann Josef Müller Brockmann Max Bill Richard P Lohse Hans Neuberg and Carlo Vivarelli who began to experiment with typography and photo-montage Characterized by a cold emotionally sterile grid style they used structured layout and unjustified type that became very influential in the mid twentieth century and influenced a vast audience These pioneering graphic artists saw design as part of industrial production and searched for anonymous objective visual communication They chose photographic images rather than illustration and typefaces that were industrial-looking rather than those designed for books In short the visual characteristics of the International Typographic Style include: Asymmetrically organizing the design elements on a grid to create Visual unity in a composition Presenting visual and textual information in a clear and factual manner using objective photography and illustration and ensuring that it filters any propaganda and the exaggerated claims of commercial advertising Using sans-serif typography set flush left ragged right — The movement believed sans-serif typography expressed the spirit of a progressive age and that mathematical grids were the most legible and harmonious means for structuring information The initiators of the Swiss Grid Style were of the belief that the visual appearance of the work is not as important as the integrity of its philosophical tenets whereby Design is a socially worthwhile and serious vocation In design there is no room for eccentricity and/or idiosyncrasy Design should be grounded on universal artistic principles and using a scientific approach should provide a well-defined solution to a problem The designer is a visual communicator and not an artist The designer acts as an objective and reliable transmitter of important information between members of society The ideal of design is to achieve clarity and order A leading pioneer of the Swiss Style Josef Müller Brockmann was the founder and editor of the Zurich published journal Neue Grafik who introduced the Swiss Style into America He was concerned with functional and objective design that by restricting design elements in the confine of typographic grid would shift the focus of image on the core message displayed by a clean and sharp geometrical aesthetic The grid was used to define the constant dimensions of the design space and elements were inserted precisely into it so that all parts of a page would be integrated coherently according to the aesthetic order According to Müller Brockmann I have always aspired to a distinct arrangement of typographic and pictorial elements the clear identification of priorities The formal organisation of the surface by means of the grid a knowledge of the rules that govern legibility lines length word and letter spacing and so on and the meaningful use of colour are among the tools a designer must master in order to complete his or her task in a rational and economic matterThe greatest works of art impress through their balance their harmony their proportions all of which can be measured That is one of the reasons why paintings sculptures and buildings that are thousands of years old – by the Egyptians Chinese Assyrians and so on – are still fascinating to us today The objective was an effective and efficient visual communication: information presented this way was assumed not only read more quickly and easily but is also more easily understood and retained in memory Josef Müller Brockmann Josef Müller Brockmann was born in Rapperswil Switzerland in 1914 and studied architecture design and history of art at the University of Zurich and at the city’s Kunstgewerbeschule He began his career as an apprentice to the designer and advertising consultant Walter Diggelman before in 1936 establishing his own Zurich studio specialising in graphics exhibition design and photography According to his own account I became a graphic designer by accident At school I was loth to write much for compositions so I put in illustrations instead My teacher enjoyed them and thought I had talent He suggested that I should pursue an artistic career: gravure etching or retouching for instance So I was apprenticed as a retoucher in a printing works I lasted one day because I said that this wasn’t artistic work After that I was apprenticed to two elderly architects With them I lasted four weeks Then I went to see all the graphic designers I found listed in the telephone directory because I wanted to find out what they did Afterwards I enrolled to study graphic design at the Zurich Gewerbeschule As a graphic designer Müller Brockmann’s skills included letterpress silkscreen and lithography His geometric style was demonstrated in “Musica viva” a series of concert posters for the Zurich Tonhalle in 1951 It is arguably claimed that his work was an adaptation of concrete art which had been described by Theo van Doesburg around 1930 as works of art that are created by means of art’s most genuine means of composition and principles entirely doing without allusions to phenomenon of nature and their abstraction New realities were supposed to be created by forming colors space light and movement The style had to incorporate mathematical methods of spatial organization into graphic work which drew on the language of Constructivism to create a visual correlative to the structural harmonies of the music Müller Brockmann’s 1955 poster Beethoven was supposed to portray Beethoven’s music through a series of concentric curves and has been offered as an example such an adaptation and this assertion had been accepted at its face value by many pundits who were impressed by the novelty elegance and the simplicity of design As Müller Brockmann has stated: In my designs for posters advertisements brochures and exhibitions subjectivity is suppressed in favour of a geometric grid that determines the arrangement of the type and images The grid is an organisational system that makes it easier to read the messageThe grid is an organisational system that enables you to achieve an orderly result at a minimum cost The task is solved more easily faster and better It brings the arbitrary organisation of text into a logical system in keeping with the conflict It can demonstrate uniformity that reaches beyond national boundaries a boon to advertising from which IBM for instance has profited Objective-rational design means legible design objective information that is communicated without superlatives or emotional subjectivity From 1967 he was European design consultant for IBM He is the author of The Graphic Artist and his Design Problems 1961 History of Visual Communication 1971 History of the Poster with Shizuko Muller-Yoshikawa 1971 Nevertheless Müller Brockmann’s work was rigid and soulless suffering from certain self-imposed restrictions of the Swiss style and dogmas such as the rejection of symmetry since fascists had liked it! He has said: symmetry and the central axis are what characterise fascist architecture Modernism and democracy reject the axis I have taken my love of order to the point of manifest boredom producing design solutions which are valid but deadly boring Thanks to the passage of time I am now just about able to examine my posters for the Zurich Tonhalle to discover why some are better than others I am amazed how many are bad The Beethoven poster is good also the “Musica Viva” poster of 1970 with the green lettering on a blue background and the two Tonhalle posters of 1969 and 1972 with the rhythmic type Looking at this juncture at these posters when digital software packages can do any of them in just few minutes and with few of clinks it is easy to dismiss the whole exercise as boring and insignificant Of course the world would have become a boring place should all posters have adopted the Swiss grid style However we have to remind ourselves that when these posters appeared on the scene their geometrical aesthetics were quite novel and rare Perhaps ironically Müller Brockmann has stated that he did not like experiments such as that of Neville Brody’s typefaces that have the potential to rescue the grid style Typefaces designed for Neville Brody By the early 1990s Neville Brody was able with a straight face to recommend abandoning typography’s requirement of legibility — gloating as a chill shot down the spines of his type-pro audiences Müller Brockmann was totally dismissive of Brody’s powerful artistic impact The fact that not all viewers are of commercial types and not everybody is concerned with profit maximizing attitudes that just require to get the information in an efficient and cost effective manner the fact that there are also viewers that are interested in looking at a poster’s typeface from an artistic view point and reflect on them which in the process may also convey the message of an advertisement appears to have been totally alien to him He has said Some set themselves the task of making typography so unreadable that it is almost like a picture puzzle The illegibility is then sold as an artistic project I wouldn’t read something like that unless I had to The same rational criterion applies to wobbly forms and blurred contours: can I read this faster Text is communication of content a fact reflected in classical typefaces and legible typography typefaces designed for Neville Brody are not suitable for advertisements and posters They are exceptions to the rule and individual cases are not a basis for teaching graphic design These alphabets are confused aesthetically lacking and bad Playing around is always an excuse for too little understanding which makes people fall on imagination and speak of artistic freedom inspiration and good ideas Such typefaces are interesting as studies in legibility But I don’t see any sense in them They are a personal attempt to deal with a problem and I find them not only bad but senseless because they lack an area of application In an interview with Eye Magazine for their Winter 1995 issue just one year prior to his passing he was asked what order meant to him: Order was always wishful thinking for me For 60 years I have produced disorder in files correspondence and books In my work however I have always aspired to a distinct arrangement of typographic and pictorial elements the clear identification of priorities The formal organisation of the surface by means of the grid a knowledge of the rules that govern legibility line length word and letter spacing and so on and the meaningful use of colour are among the tools a designer must master in order to complete his or her task in a rational and economic manner Max Bill Max Bill 1908–1994 was born in Winterthur Switzerland An architect painter typographer industrial designer engineer sculptor educator and graphic designer Bill was initially a student at the Kunstgewerbeschule and apprenticed as a silversmith before beginning his studies in 1927 at the Bauhaus in Dessau Germany with teachers such as Wassily Kandinsky Paul Klee and Oskar Schlemmer Bill permanently settled in Zurich Switzerland in 1929 and in 1937 became involved with a group of Swiss artists and designers named the Allianz The Allianz group advocated the concrete theories of art and design and included Max Huber Leo Leuppi and Richard Paul Lohse In 1950 Max Bill and Otl Aicher founded the Ulm School of Design Hochschule fur Gestaltung-HfG Ulm in Ulm Germany a design school initially created in the tradition of the Bauhaus and that is notable for its inclusion of semiotics the philosophical theory of signs and symbols as a field of study Bill was of the view that It is possible to develop an art largely on the basis of mathematical thinking Over the 1967-71 period Bill taught at the Staatliche Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste in Hamburg where he was the chair of environmental design As a graphic designer he enthusiastically embraced the tenets and philosophical views of this modernist movement The majority of his graphic work is based solely on cohesive visual principles of organization and composed of purist forms—modular grids san serif typography asymmetric compositions linear spatial divisions mathematical progressions and dynamic figure–ground relationships Simultaneous Constructions 1945-51 Three Groups 1947 Construction in Black 1939 Richard P Lohse Richard Paul Lohse 1902-1988 was born in Zürich Switzerland in 1902 In 1918 he joined the advertising agency Max Dalang where he trained to be an advertising artist but in his artistic career he started with figurative works and gradually moved to post-cubism style Lohse worked for the Max Dalang agency until 1927 where he became interested in the international avant-garde movements in both its artistic and political aspects In 1937 Lohse a key figure in the Swiss School and Leo Leuppi joined forces to establish Allianz an association of Swiss modern artists promoting publications exhibitions and the dissemination of avant-garde art He collaborated with Max Bill and Verena Loevesberg in the Zurcher Konkrete group which was affiliated with Allianz In 1938 Lohse and Irmgard Burchard his first wife organise the Twentieth Century German Art exhibition in London Soon after Lohse joined the resistance movement where he met his second wife Ida Alis Dürner In 1942 Lohse formulated his conception of constructive painting a style that was highly structural In the words of Fr W Heckmanns His horizontal and vertical structures follow each other in serial and modular orders within the rectangular limits of the canvas The essential content of his work is a rational interpretation of the relationship between artistic practice and the problem of the form of social organization in short a human attitude towards the balance of law and freedom In the years 1947-1956 Lohse was an editor and designer for the swiss architectural magazine bauenwohnen or constructionhabitation A special edition of the magazine was launched for Germany in 1952 Lohse’s style was characterized by his devotion to precision and clarity in his theoretical framework He saw structure not as a preliminary foundation but as a totality of concept in the image He conceptualized the canvas as a field of interacting modules in which the color and the form are complementary in creation of a formal color structure Richard Paul Lohse Fifteen systematic vertical color lines with diagonal violet 1975 Armin Hofmann Armin Hofmann was born in 1920 in Winterthur Switzerland During the 1937-39 period Hofmann studied at Kunstgewerbeschule in Zürich and apprenticed as a lithographer until 1943 From 1943 until 1948 He worked as lithographer in Basel and Berne and in his own graphic atelier In 1946 Hofmann joined the Allgemeine Gewerbeschule AGS in Basel where he and Ruder established a world renowned advanced course in graphic design Kenneth Hiebert a former student of Hofmann recalls that in the early sixties Hofmann would occasionally bring in a Cassandre or Stoecklin poster and perfunctorily tack it to the wall When the students cringed at this apparent maltreatment Hofmann would say “A good poster can take it” What he really meant was that the posters were not intended as museum pieces but as things that should weather the harsh treatment of the streets In the words of Paul Rand His goals though pragmatic are never pecuniary His influence has been as strong beyond the classroom as within it Even those who are his critics are eager about his ideas as those who sit at his feet He had a visiting professorship at the Philadelphia College of Art in 1955 Then came an appointment at Yale University where he regularly conducted working seminars in graphic art and became director of the advanced graphic course in 1967 He carried on teaching abroad in Ahmedabad India Hofmann’s book Graphic Design Manual: Principles and Practiceis is a seminal work in graphic design He has created many posters logos color concepts signage systems and art-in-building projects as well as participating in many exhibitions According to him “ primary in black and white posters is to counteract the trivialization of color as it exists today on billboards and in advertising Emil Ruder Typography has one plain duty before it and that is to convey information in writing No argument or consideration can absolve typography from this duty -Emil Ruder Emil Ruder 1914-1970 was a key player in the development of the Swiss Style Born in Zurich Ruder began his design education at the early age of fifteen when he took a compositor’s apprenticeship By his late twenties Ruder began attending the Zurich School of Arts and Crafts where the principles of Bauhaus and Tschichold’s New Typography were taught leaving an indelible impression on Ruder Academia would continue to play a major role in Ruder’s life though it would naturally evolve into the form of teacher rather than student In 1947 he took a position as the typography instructor at the Schule für Gestaltung Basel Basel School of Design He along with the great Armin Hofmann developed a program structured on principles of objectivity in design He broke away from the subjective style-driven typography of the past and encouraged his students to be more concerned with precision proportions and above all the role of legibility and communication with type Karl Gerstner Born in Basel Switzerland in 1930 Karl Gerstner was a painter and a graphic designer who studied design at Allgemeine Gewerbschule in Basel under Emil Ruder In 1959 he and Markus Kutter confounded Gerstner amp Kutter a design agency which later when the architect Paul Gredinger joined them changed its name to GGK Gerstner’s theory of ‘The Colour Form Model’ presented in his book The Forms of Colour is one of his most significant contribution to graphic design Inspired by the rich and colorful patterns of a Moroccan craftsman art in this book Gerstner explored the multifaceted and intricate relationships between colour and form as the basic structural components of Islamic art Analyzing graphical interrelationships among various dimensions of colour spaces and formal systems of perspective topologies fractals and so on he framed his theory in the context of Wilhelm Ostwald’s 1922 rational theory of forms which provides a seemingly unlimited mathematical base for formal variations Gerstner discussed the work of a like-minded mathematician/artist Hans Hinterreiter who as an early adherent to Ostwald’s theory adopted deconstructive style of painting experimenting with forms and colors based on laws of color organ and form Hinterreiter was also inspired by the Moorish interpretation of Islamic ornamentation of the Alhambra after his 1934 trip to Spain Presenting his own colour-form theory Gerstner assessed Kandinsky’s idiosyncratic metaphysical assertions on the correspondence between colour and form squarered triangleyellow circleblue and suggested his own system of ‘Colour Signs’ Using computer programming he developed a system of new primary forms such as astroids diagons and sinuons and discussed their possible correspondence with aural and tactile sensory modes Gerstner’s book ‘Designing Programmes’ 1964 was a manifesto for system orientated design which he described as ‘programmes’ He defined a design ‘program’ as a set of rules for constructing a range of visual solutions and connected his methodology with the new field of computer programming and presented examples of computer generated patterns that were made by mathematically describing visual elements and combining them according to simple rules Gerstner’s grid for the journal Capital designed in 1962 is still often cited by some as near-perfect in terms of its mathematical properties The smallest unit in Gerstner’s grid or matrix as he called it is 10pt—the baseline to baseline measurement of the text The main area for text and images is a square with an area above for titles and running heads The cleverness lies in the subdivision of the square into 58 equal units in both directions If all intercolumn spaces are two units then a two- three- four- five- or six-column structure is possible without any leftover units Gerstner wrote: “The typographic grid is a proportional regulator for type– matter tables pictures and so on It is a priority programme for a content as yet unknown The difficulty lies in finding the balance between maximum formality and maximum freedom or in other words the greatest number of constant factors combined with the greatest possible variability” Of course sometimes grid becomes a trap — even for an imminent artist like Grestner Gerstner’s typographic experiments with unjustified ragged-right textHollis 2002 and his proposed Integral Typography which extended Max Bill’s ideas on typography Müller-Brockman and Müller 2000 have also been influential Like the Italian futurists Gerstner believed that typography can greatly contribute to the actual discovery of meaning with its whole impact to be greater than the sum of the words and the meanings We have to be careful in our aesthetic judgement — Is it grid that renders this work so astoundingly powerful I am sorry adhering rigidly to a grid system does not guarantee the success of a work Hans Neuberg Hans Neuburg 1904 – 1983 was born in Grulich Austria-Hungary which later became part of Czechoslovakia — the town is now called Králíky and after the division of Czechoslovakia most of the municipality become part of the the Czech Republic At the age fifteen Neuburg enrolled at Orell Füssli AG in Zurich and graduated in 1922 After graduation he worked at various positions in advertising freelance graphic design and magazine editor Over the 1958-65 he and is fellow artists Richard Paul Lohse joseph Müller-Brockmann and carlo vivarelli established “Neue Grafik” magazine After a brief two years period assuming the directorship of the Gewerbemuseum in Winterhur in 1962-64 during which he also taught at the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm and writing a number of books including Graphic Design in Swiss Industry 1965 Publicity and Graphic Design in the Chemical Industry 1967 and Conceptions of International Exhibition 1969 he moved to Ottawa Canada to teach at Carlton University School of Industrial Design in 1971 Carlo Vivarelli Carlo Vivarelli 1919-1986 was a graphic designer painter and sculptor who was born in Zurich and studied at the renowned Kunstgewerbeschule from 1934-39 and in 1946 became Art Director at the progressive avant garde Studio Boggeri in Milan During this time and when he returned to his native Switzerland he became one of the leaders of the Swiss Modernists and in 1958 became a co-founder of Neue Grafik magazine In his later years he concentrated more on his concrete art and sculptures Wim Crouwel and the Dutch Total Grid The concept of the total grid has been the brainchild of Wim Crouwel a dutch graphic designer born in 1928 He is one of the five founders of Total Design a multi-disciplinary design studio in the Netherlands Crouwel studied fine art in Groningen before moving to Amsterdam in the early 1950s where he initially worked for an exhibition design company Because of his interest in architecture and his spatial sensitivities he applied for commissions for cultural institutions such as the Van Abbe Museum in Eindhoven in 1956 and the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam shortly afterwards for which Crouwel was solely responsible to develop an identity by posters and catalogues It was at the Stedelijk that Crouwel created his Neu Alphabet an unconventional typeface based on grid system In 1963 Crouwel founded Total Design a multi-disciplinary design agency that its hallmark was modular structuring and grids With a systematic approach to design projects it created the identity for a large number of Dutch companies including some multinationals like IBM and Olivetti Total Design altered the visual landscape of the Netherlands throughout the 1960-70 period In the 1970s Crouwel designed the Dutch Pavilion for the Osaka World Fair as well as numerous postal stamps for the Dutch post office and a controversial redesign of the telephone book using only lowercase letters Crouwel’s typeface was constructed using only horizontal and vertical lines creating an alphabet of all lowercases Although only half of the letters were recognizable with the emergence of personal computers his modern typeface was particularly aimed at digital systems in 1967 However for many Crouwel’s typeface appeared illegible It challenged the design establishment but Crouwel was happily engaged in the ensued controversy and readily confessed that he attaches a higher priority to visual aesthetics relative to functionality Crouwel has stated I simply wanted to make a consistent alphabet on the basis of that grid of squares I did not want any cluttering of vertical stems and did not find a solution within the conventional structure of the characters So I began researching the past looking for alternative signs with which I could replace the conventional forms One could have made them up but I wanted them to have some kind of footing in the history of type His new typeface was redrawn by Brett Wickens and Peter Saville for the Joy Division album ‘Substance’ in the late 80s and then digitized and made available for use in 1997 by The Foundry Crouwel designed a number of other fonts including Gridnick an appropriate reference to his use of grid systems and Mr Gridnick became Crouwel’s endearing nickname —- Lella Valle amp Massimo Vignelli The graphic designs of the Italian graphic designer couple Lella Valle and her husband Massimo Vignelli are also based on concept of total design in the confine of a grid Born in Udine in 1936 Lella Valle studied architecture and met Massimo Vignelli who also studied architecture in Venice in the 1950s The couple moved to to the US during the 1958-1960 period where Lella Vignelli worked in New York for Skidmore Owings amp Merrill and Massimo Vignelli taught at the Chicago Institue of Design In 1960 they returned to Italy and opened a graphic design studio in Milan Five years later Massimo joined Bob Noorda and Jay Doblin in founding Unimark International a design consultancy in Milan In that same year 1965 Vignellies moved to New York in order to manage a Unimark branch that specialized in developing corporate logos and designing the corporate identity for the business clients According to Massimo they intended to return to Milan after a short while but that didn’t come to pass and they settled in New York for good In 1971 they rebranded the practice as Vignelli Associates which created corporate identities for firms such as American Airlines Bloomingdale’s Cinzano Lancia United Colors of Benetton Ford Xerox and the International Design Center New York While working for Unimark Vignellies redesigned the look of the NYC Metropolitan Transit Authority with a new subway map and train identification sign system They Replaced the previously chaotic typography with Helvetica and reduced the train routes down to solid color while geometric lines organized the map and allowed signs to be clearer and more distinct In 1977 Vignellies designed the Unigrid System for the National Park Service The module grid system allowed the the National Park to create brochures in ten basic formats and to keep a consistent recognizable structure across all it’s materials With their training grounded in architecture Vignellies established a vision of an organized systematic structural approach early in their design careers The underlying structure of many of their endeavors in corporate identity publication book design and interiors continues to be the a strictly grid-based design Lella amp Massimo began exploring the grid structure early in their career in Milan by working on corporate entities and projects for various cultural organizations These early works allowed them to build a design style focused on dividing space within a modular grid that was subdivided rationally into distinct zones Breaking down the page into smaller intervals of space permitted a clear translation of complex informational material Most of their designs utilize a limited color palette and use mostly five typefaces Garamond Bodoni Helvetica Univers and Century According to Massimo: Bodoni is one of the most elegant typefaces ever designed When I talk about elegance I mean intellectual elegance Elegance of the mind Some of the typefaces created by Zuzana Licko Vignellies are purists and have a distaste for the bitmap font tool used by Zuzana Licko to develop the font for the influential Emigré journal According to Massimo Vignelli Emigré and Rudy van der Lans are the worst thing to happen to typography Rudy van der Lans who moved to America in 1981 to study photography at the University of California Berkeley where he met and married Zuzana Licko founded the influential Emigré journal in 1984 Vignelli believes Jonathan Hoefler is someone who is carrying the typographic torch today Pierre Mendell “Quality graphic design stands out for the mindset it exhibits: stringent reduced in form always intense never pretentious In this way Pierre Mendell developed a most distinct style He flexibly dealt with particular tasks and through this eminently lived up to the challenge of respective themes Hence Pierre Mendell’s posters are so simple and convincing and will continue to be of great significance beyond this day” – Florian Hufnagl Die Neue Sammlung – The International Design Museum Munich Pierre Mendell 1929 – 2008 one of the world’s leading graphic designers was born in Essen Germany Mendell lived in France between 1934 and 1947 emigrated to the USA in 1947 in 1953 returned to France where he worked in the family textiles company in 1958 began studying graphic design under Armin Hofmann at the Schule für Gestaltung in Basle the Mendell amp Oberer studio was founded in 1961 in Munich For almost 30 years he played a role in creating the visual identity of the neue sammlung – the international design museum munichPierre Mendell has been designing the posters for the Staatsoper in Munich from 1993 to 2006 With over a hundred motifs to his name he has not only successfully created an unmistakable identity for the Munich opera he has also linked this opera house with a form of visual expression that is unparalleled in its originality and immediacy Mendell’s simple almost archaic visual language is admired over the world and his poster designs are represented in leading collections such as the Museum of Modern Art New York Pierre Mendell’s work is characterized by elements which are often missing in much contemporary graphic design: vibrancy communicative force poetry and humor His cultural posters and corporate design identities — including his designs for Vitra and Siemens for which he is probably best known — are timeless yet contemporary The success of his designs demonstrate that the strength of all graphic work depends on an overarching concept not on current fads Pierre Mendell’s awards include the Gold Medal from the Art Directors Club Germany the Gold Medal form the Art Directiors Club New York Best German Poster of the Grand Prix International de l’Affiche Paris and the German Poster Grand Prix Pierre Mendell’s work has been exhibited in the Munich City Museum the International Design Centre Berlin the Galleria Aiap Milano the Muzeum Plakatu Warsaw the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes Buenos Aires the Centro de la Imagen Mexico City and the Visual Arts Musuem New York His work is represented in the Graphic Design Collection of the Museum of Modern Art New York Pierre Mendell taught from 1987 to 1996 at the Yale University Summer Design Program in Brissago Switzerland Alberto Longhi Per favore fatemi sapere dove posso trovare una biografia e una fotografia di grande designer grafico Alberto Longhi S’il vous plaît laissez-moi savoir où puis-je trouver une biographie et une photo de ce grand designer graphique Alberto Longhi Guity Novin Grid Systems The Revival of Swiss Grid System in the Cyberspace Swiss style focus on clarity eye-friendliness readability and objectivity has made it a powerful tool for web-communications which enhanced by its strong reliance on elements of typography and universality Grid systems in web design have spawned a number of the Cascading Style Sheets CSS frameworks For instance the 960 Grid System Fluidable Columnal and Cardinal are efforts to streamline web development workflow by providing commonly used dimensions These CSS frameworks are designed to simplify the creation of webpages based on a grid system A number of websites have been created using the framework Some of the exemplars are good examples on how using a grid system can produce aesthetically beautiful websites Grids are used to present content in a consistent and predictable manner helping to organise content in a methodical fashion It affords conformity and uniformity increasing the usability of any given system by placing items and information in a predictable manner reducing the cognitive overload of users “According to the principles of consistency systems are more useable and learnable when similar parts are expressed in similar ways learn new things quickly and focus attention on the relevant aspects of a task” Lidwell Holden and Butler 2010: 24 The style can be easily identified for its simplicity and clarity of purpose These two principles are often manifested in the use of asymmetric layouts grids sans-serif typefaces left-flushes and simple but impactful photography These elements are produced in a simple but highly logical structured stiff and harmonious manner It is clear that the Swiss Style is information-oriented This is why designers should think of the information dissemination using its artistic principles Go to the next chapter Chapter 43: Graphic Design and the Postmodern Epoch Neville Brody’s Anti-Swiss Crusade The digital revolution and the introduction of the Macintosh computer in the mid-1980s made the construction and deconstruction of typographical elements easier than it had been in the past Embracing technology that was growing exponentially more sophisticated designers realized more and more complex typographic experiment Neville Brody’s FF Blur is one example Influenced by the late-1970s punk rock aesthetic Brody began his career at the London College of Printing and later designed record covers for various artists while art director of Fetish Records The letterforms of FF Blur—fuzzy around the edges like an out-of-focus photograph—seem to celebrate their own imperfection speaking to his unique background FF Blur resembles type that has been reproduced cheaply on a Xerox machine—degenerated through copying and recopying Soon after Joan and Erik Spiekermann launched FontShop in 1989 Brody and Spiekermann cofounded FontFont which would grow into the world’s largest independent collection of original typefaces until its acquisition by Monotype in 2014 Brody’s other major achievement in this field is FUSE the quarterly magazine for experimental type design he cocreated with Jon Wozencroft Brody Fonts’ decision to join Type Network was no coincidence It was the culmination of a longstanding professional relationship and friendship between Neville Brody and Type Network cofounder David Berlow a shared history spanning three decades The seeds of their collaboration were sown in 1987 when Berlow met Brody and Spiekermann at an ATypI conference in New York “Two years later we met again in San Antonio ” Berlow explained in an interview with Yves Peters “This time I had retail fonts to offer them” In his characteristic irreverent style Berlow continued: “By then FontShop was starting to talk about their global conspiracy to have an international distribution network” Brody released his first retail typefaces through Linotype He based Industria on headlines he had drawn between 1980 and 1986 as the art director for the influential British fashion bible The Face Arcadia and Insignia originated as a banner and a headline type for Arena magazine which he art-directed from 1987 to 1990 after his departure from The Face Following his stint at Linotype Brody moved on to cofound FontFont the first independent foundry aside from Emigre established by type designers In short order FontFont became the cool foundry everyone wanted to work with Peters remembered a conversation he had with Brody during the early days of FontFont: “He explained to me that he wanted the independent foundry to be a bit like a record label To help designers break away from the tired old mainstays FontFont planned to release new designs on a regular basis ‘hit singles’ so to speak Changing trends would cause those typefaces to fade into the background making way for fresh new type in tune with the times in a perpetual cycle of typographic renewal The current font market is remarkably close to his original vision” Brody enlisted Berlow’s company Font Bureau to work on the typefaces he planned to release through FontFont “We helped him make sense of his wild geometric designs” said Berlow Font Bureau produced FF Typeface Four FF Typeface Six and FF Typeface Seven in 1991 and FF Gothic and FF Pop in 1992 Brody’s FF Blur also developed during this period proved to be a milestone: Paola Antonelli eventually acquired it as one of twenty-three digital typefaces for the Museum of Modern Art’s Architecture and Design Collection After this successful start to their collaboration Berlow sent one of the young designers from his studio to London—a guy named Tobias Frere-Jones Frere-Jones assisted Brody in preparing FF World FF Tokyo FF Dome and FF Tyson for release in 1993 as well as FF Harlem 1994’s FF Autotrace and Brody’s contributions to the FF Dirty Fonts series in 1994 and 1995 recalled his efforts for FUSE True to his inquisitive and cutting-edge approach to graphic design Brody had started questioning both the usual methods of type design and the actual shapes of the alphabet very early on in his forays into making digital typefaces Barely one year after starting FontFont the first issue of FUSE hit the proverbial stands Each edition included four experimental typefaces by renowned and up-and-coming graphic designers four posters showcasing those typefaces and one or more additional typefaces by Brody also with their own posters For the most part the contributors were not experienced type designers so Font Bureau took on some of the production and mastering until the FontFont Type Department got up to speed At this point FontShop had started hiring people to do production work on typefaces for both FontFont and FUSE thus ending Font Bureau’s involvement Brody and FontWorks also parted ways Font Bureau and FontShop always had distinct separate relationships with Brody which continued beyond this period In the early nineties Font Bureau commissioned Brody to design their well-known logo “Brody’s idea was to have a perpetually changing logo using different typefaces so we created a logo font with twenty-six different quotes” Sam Berlow said “We were very happy with his design from start to finish” David Berlow continued “We never changed it and only expanded the logo variations for all the formats and proportions it needed to cover to give us the necessary flexibility with different tones of voice” Sam Berlow added: “Brody came back to it in 2012 and developed the current Font Bureau identity and brand guidelines using Benton Sans” In the early aughts Brody Studios ventured into custom typeface design creating memorable typographic stylings for major publications and broadcasters as well as for global brands And now Brody is ready to unleash a new series of retail families sporting his signature wit and inventiveness Brody Fonts joins Type Network in exclusivity with two remarkable designs BF Bonn is a geometric sans with a typical Brody twist The display face blends art deco influences with futuristic tendencies in a series of eight weights ranging from a razor-sharp Thin to a dense massive Ultra Stylistic alternates rein in BF Bonn’s strong personality a little for more conventional applications With BF Buffalo Brody goes full-on hard sci-fi The face’s industrial features combine chiseled outside cuts with tense inside curves Alternate capitals emphasize a faux-monospaced rhythm while stylistic alternates for strategic characters increase the modularity of the letterforms Set out of the box the seven weights from Ultra Light to Ultra Black create striking headlines and titles In the hands of adventurous typographers the faceted character shapes morph into the pieces of an alphabetic jigsaw puzzle “Neville has had a close working relationship with Sam Berlow Jill Pichotta myself and various other Font Bureau designers from the moment Tobias Frere-Jones walked through his door to the present” said David Berlow “Trying to distill your inspiration into a usable typographic language without what Neville calls ‘commercializing’ it is a challenge for all of us Since those early years we have been involved in helping him produce—and in some cases tame—his wildly imaginative designs into usable typefaces David Jonathan Ross currently helps Brody produce his fonts And now we’re moving forward with Neville opening his own store Brody Fonts under the Type Network banner which we are very excited about” “Working at ad agencies and design studios in the 1990s in Dallas Texas I spied The Graphic Language of Neville Brody on the desks and in the hands of countless creatives” said Tamye Riggs a Type Network team member and FontShop alum who chronicled the early days of digital type for Adobe “These big hardback books were well-thumbed and heavily sticky-noted I can tell you that How did a British designer have such an impact on impressionable young minds in the Lone Star State before the web and social media was a thing It’s a bit of a mystery to me but Neville captured the zeitgeist in such a vibrant typographically in-your-face way He’s been so often imitated but never really successfully No one could ever hope to replicate what goes on in his head” “The Graphic Language of Neville Brody came out in my first year at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts I immediately got a copy at the recommendation of my graphic design teacher and Brody became a source of inspiration in my formative years” said Peters “Little did I know that during my internship at Spiekermann’s MetaDesign in August 1991 my first FontShop assignment would be to design a FontWorks ad commissioned by Brody himself We interacted many times during my tenure at FontShop BeNeLux in the early nineties My personal highlight was inviting him as a speaker and jury member for the first FontShop BeNeLux Typography Award Working with Neville again after all those years is like coming full circle” “I’ve long admired Neville’s work from afar and am so thrilled to have him on Type Network” said General Manager Paley Dreier “His one-of-a-kind voice and unique typefaces are a welcome addition to our growing family” This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-No Derivative Works 30 Unported License 1
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2016 KATA PENGANTAR Bismillahirrahmanirrahim Puji dan syukur penyusun panjatkan kehadirat Allah SWT yang telah senantiasa melimpahkan nikmat yang tiada tara yang tidak hentinya memberikan kesabaran dan kekuatan kepada penyusun sehingga dalam penulisan makalah ini penyusun senantiasa diberikan kemudahan Shalawat beserta salam semoga tercurah limpah kepada junjunan alam yang telah membawa perubahan zaman dari zaman jahiliyah ke zaman ilmiah yakni nabiyyina Muhammad SAW beserta keluarga sahabat beserta umat yang tunduk dan patuh terhadap sunahnya Makalah ini disusun untuk memenuhi tugas terstruktur pada mata kuliah Manajemen Investasi jurusan Manajemen Keuangan Syariah Fakultas Syariah dan Hukum Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung tahun akademik 2015/2016 Dalam penyusunan makalah ini penyusun telah berusaha semaksimal mungkin agar penyajiannya sesuai dengan harapan dan tuntutan sebuah makalah yang sempurna Penyusun menyadari atas segala kekurangan dan keterbatasan baik dari segi teknik maupun isi Oleh karena itu diharapkan makalah ini dapat memberikan sumbangan pemikiran yang berharga dalam dunia pendidikan dan khususnya bagi saya sebagai penyusun makalah ini Oleh karena itu penyusun mengharapkan segala kritik dan saran yang bersifat membangun bagi penyusun Bandung April 201 6 Penyusun DAFTAR ISI KATA PENGANTAR i DAFTAR ISI ii BAB I PENDAHULUAN A Latar Belakan g Masalah 1 B Rumusan Masalah 1 C Tujuan Penulisan 2 BAB II PEMBAHASAN A Sejarah Obligasi 3 B Pengertian Obligasi 5 C Jenis-jenis Obligasi 14 D Karakteristik Obligasi 34 E Risiko Obligasi 37 F Pihak-pihak yang Terlibat dalam Penerbitan Obligasi 40 G Struktur Obligasi Syariah 42 H Obligasi sebagai Sumber Pendanaan dalam Perusahaan 45 I Soal Latihan Obligasi 47 BAB III SIMPULAN 50 DAFTAR PUSTAKA 51 BAB I PENDAHULUAN A Latar Belakang Masalah Obligasi atau Bonds adalah surat utang jangka panjang yang memiliki kewajiban membayar bunga pinjaman secara periodik dan mengembalikan pinjaman pokoknya pada waktu jatuh tempo Sebagai surat utang penerbitan obligasi melibatkan perjanjian kontra yang meningkat antara pihak penerbit issure dengan pihak Pembeli Pinjaman/investor/ bondbolder Obligasi sebelum diperdagangkan harus mengikuti proses pemeringkatan Pemeringkatan terhadap obligasi akan diterbitkan bertujuan untuk menilai kinerja perusahaan Surat berharga obligasi merupakan instrument utang bagi perusahaan yang hendak memperoleh modal Keuntungan dari membeli obligasi diwujudkan dalam bentuk kupon Berbeda dengan saham maka obligasi tidak mempunyai hak terhadap manajemen dan kekayaan Obligasi terdiri atas dua macam yakni obligasi konvensional dan obligasi syariah B Rumusan Masalah Berdasarkan latar belakang masalah di atas maka dapat dirumuskan masalah sebagai berikut: 1 Bagaimana sejarah munculnya obligasi 2 Apa pengertian obligasi 3 Apa saja jenis-jenis obligasi 4 Apa karakteristik obligasi 5 Bagaimana risiko obligasi 6 Siapa saja pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam penerbitan obligasi 7 Bagaimana struktur obligasi 8 Bagaimana peran obligasi dalam perusahaan 9 Bagaimana soal latihan obligasi C Tujuan Penulisan Berdasarkan latar rumusan masalah di atas maka dapat dirumuskan tujuan masalah sebagai berikut: 1 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tentang sejarah obligasi 2 Mahasiswa dapat mendeskripsikan tentang pengertian obligasi 3 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tantang jenis-jenis obligasi 4 Mahasiswa dapat mendeskripsikan tentang karakteristik obligasi 5 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tentang risiko obligasi 6 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tentang pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam penerbitan obligasi 7 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tentang struktur obligasi 8 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tentang obligasi sebagai sumber pendanaan dalam perusahan 9 Mahasiswa mampu mendeskripsikan tentang soal penghitungan obligasi BAB II PEMBAHASAN A Sejarah Obligasi Ketika Perang Dunia I pecah dana yang dimiliki pemerintah Amerika Serikat AS tidak seperti saat ini Kenyataannya jumlah dana yang tersedia saat itu tidak mampu menutup semua biaya perang yang diperlukan Perdebatan tentang biaya perang ini langsung menjadi isu topik dan permasalahan nasional Menghadapi situasi ini pemerintah AS memanfaatkan kendalinya atas uang rakyat Pemerintah AS menaikkan pajak warganya untuk mencukupi kekurangan biaya perang Tiga tahun setelah Perang Dunia I selesai tepatnya pada tahun 1917 pemerintah AS menemukan cara yang lebih mudah sekaligus menjadi solusi alternatif untuk menutupi hutang negara di tahun berikutnya dan juga untuk menyokong pertumbuhan ekonomi AS Solusi alternatif ini disebut Liberty Bond atau Obligasi Liberty yang telah membebaskan AS dari krisis keuangan Liberty Bond diterapkan pemerintah AS untuk mendapatkan uang lebih untuk menutupi defisit negara Caranya Obligasi tersebut dijual kepada warga negara Amerika dengan iming – iming premis atau imbalan yang tinggi Sungguh mengejutkan dalam waktu singkat pemerintah AS berhasil mengumpulkan dana yang begitu besar dari hasil penjualan obligasi ini Besarnya pajak yang berhasil dikumpulkan mampu mencegah terjadinya krisis keuangan akibat defisit anggaran negara Semakin lama penjualan obligasi menjadi semakin banyak dan membesar Tak ayal lagi surat utang yang disebut Obligasi Liberty itu pun semakin dikenal masyarakat luas Di bawah ini adalah salah satu contoh iklan yang digunakan pemerintah AS untuk mendorong masyarakat membeli obligasi Liberty Obligasi secara ringkasnya adalah utang tetapi dalam bentuk sekuriti Penerbit obligasi adalah sipeminjam atau debitur sedangkan pemegang obligasi adalah pemberi pinjaman atau kreditur dan kupon obligasi adalah bunga pinjaman yang harus dibayar oleh debitur kepada kreditur Dengan penerbitan obligasi ini maka dimungkinkan bagi penerbit obligasi guna memperoleh pembiayaan investasi jangka panjangnya dengan sumber dana dari luar perusahaan Faktor keamanan investasi inilah yang sangat penting untuk dipahami Sederhananya meskipun dunia berada dalam kekacauan akibat perang dan masih adanya kemungkinan pemerintah AS tidak mampu mengembalikan uang rakyat yang telah membeli obligasi investasi ini menawarkan tempat investasi yang tidak hanya aman tetapi juga memiliki resiko yang sangat kecil Dan memang benar setelah perang usai Departemen Keuangan AS tidak mampu membiayai Obligasi Liberty yang telah dibeli oleh masyarakat Untuk mengatasinya pemerintah AS mengeluarkan obligasi yang baru Hingga saat ini obligasi diciptakan terus menerus untuk membiayai investasi dari nasabah Karena pemerintah tidak mampu lagi membiayai maka solusi yang diambil adalah dengan memproduksi uang sebanyak mungkin tanpa menggunakan jaminan emas atau benda berharga lainnya Dengan kata lain pemerintah AS mencetak uang kertas sebagai alat pembayaran obligasi nasabahnya tanpa satu jaminan pun Dapat dibayangkan hal ini membawa akibat buruk bagi masa depan negara Amerika Serikat Memang benar negara dapat menciptakan banyak uang untuk membayar investasi dari pembelian obligasi dan dari situlah muncul problem baru yang harus dihadapi pemerintah B Pengertian Obligasi Obligasi atau Bonds adalah surat utang jangka panjang yang memiliki kewajiban membayar bunga pinjaman secara periodik dan mengembalikan pinjaman pokoknya pada waktu jatuh tempo Par value atau Maturity value adalah jumlah dana yang harus dibayar penerbit pada waktu jatuh tempo Kupon bunga coupon rate adalah suku bunga obligasi dan biasanya merupakan suku bunga tetap selama masa pinjaman Bila penerbit obligasi tidak dapat memenuhi pembayaran pada waktu jatuh tempo maka pemegang obligasi bondholders memiliki klaim atas asset penerbit Obligasi merupakan suarat utang dari suatu lembaga atau perusahaan yang dijual kepada investor untuk mendapatkan dana segar Obligasi memiliki beberapa karakteristik: 1 Surat berharga yang mempunyai kekuatan hukum 2 Memiliki jangka waktu tertentu atau masa jatuh tempo 3 Memberikan pendapatan tetap secara periodik 4 Ada nilai nominal yang disebut juga nilai pari par vaule stated value atau nilai kopur Besarnya persentase pembayaran yang diberikan secara periodik atas pembayaran persentase Tertentu didasarkan atas dasar nominalnya atau disebut pembayaran kupon cupon Kupon merupakan penghasilan bunga obligasi yang didasarkan atas nilai nominal yang dilakukan berdasarkan paejanjian biasanya setiap tahun atau setiap semester atau triwulan Penentuan tingkat kupon obligasi bisa ditetntukan tingkat bunga komersial yang sedang berlaku setelah obligasi memasuki masa jatuh tempo maturity date pemilik obligasi akan menerima pokok pinjaman dan satu kali pembayaran kupon Besarnya pelunasan obligasi oleh penerbit saat jatuh tempo akan ekuivalen dengan harganya Sebagai surat utang penerbitan obligasi melibatkan perjanjian kontra yang meningkat antara pihak penerbit issure dengan pihak Pembeli Pinjaman/investor/ bondbolder Kontrak perjanjian yang mengikat antara penerbit dengan pihak pemberi pi n jaman sebagai investor minimal harus berisi empat hal 1 Besarnya tingkat kupon serta periode pembayaranya 2 Jangka waktu jatuh tempo 3 Besarnya nominal dan 4 Jenis obligasi Obligasi sebelum diperdagangkan harus mengikuti proses pemeringkatan Pemeringkatan terhadap obligasi akan diterbitkan bertujuan untuk menilai kinerja perusahaan Surat berharga obligasi merupakan instrument utang bagi perusahaan yang hendak memperoleh modal Keuntungan dari membeli obligasi diwujudkan dalam bentuk kupon Berbeda dengan saham maka obligasi tidak mempunyai hak terhadap manajemen dan kekayaan Artinya perusahaan yang mengeluarkan obligasi hanya mengakui mempunyai utang kepada si pemegang obligasi sebesar obligasi yang dimilikinya Oleh karena itu dalam struktur modal perusahaan yang terlihat dalam neraca obligasi dimasukkan dalam modal asing atau utang jangka panjang Utang ini akan dilunasi apabila telah sampai waktunya Obligasi adalah surat berharga atau pun sertifikat yang berisi kontrak antara pemberi pinjaman dengan penerima pinjaman Surat obligasi adalah selembar kertas yang menyatakan bahwa pemilik kertas tersebut memberikan pinjaman kepada perusahaan yang menerbitkan obligasi Pada dasarnya memiliki obligasi sama persis dengan memiliki deposito berjangka Hanya saja obligasi dapat diperdagangkan Obligasi memberikan penghasilan yang tetap yaitu berupa bunga yang dibayarkan dengan jumlah yang tetap pada waktu yang telah ditetapkan Obligasi juga memberikan kemungkinan untuk mendapatkan capital gain yaitu selisih antara harga penjualan dengan harga pembelian Kesulitan untuk menentukan penghasilan obligasi disebabkan oleh sulitnya memperkirakan perkembangan suku bunga Apabila suku bunga bank menunjukkan kecenderungan meningkat pemegang obligasi akan menderita kerugian Pada beberapa negara istilah obligasi dan surat utang dipergunakan tergantung pada jangka waktu jatuh temponya Pelaku pasar biasanya menggunakan istilah obligasi untuk penerbitan surat utang dalam jumlah besar yang ditawarkan secara luas kepada publik dan istilah surat utang digunakan bagi penerbitan surat utang dalam skala kecil yang biasanya ditawarkan kepada sejmlah kecil investor Tidak ada pembatasan yang jelas atas penggunaan istilah ini Ada juga dikenal istilah surat perbendaharaan yang digunakan bagi sekuriti berpenghasilan tetap dengan masa jatuh tempo 3 tahun atau kurang Obligasi memiliki risiko yang tertinggi dibandingkan dengan surat utang yang memiliki risiko menengah dan surat perbendaharaan yang memiliko risiko terendah yang mana dilihat dari sisi durasi surat utang di mana makin pendek durasinya memiliki risiko makin rendah Obligasi dan saham keduanya adalah instrumen keuangan yang disebut sekuriti namun bedanya adalah bahwa pemilik saham adalah bagian dari pemilik perusahan penerbit saham sedangkan pemegang obligasi adalah semata merupakan pemberi pinjaman atau kreditur kepada penerbit obligasi Obligasi juga biasanya memiliki suatu jangja waktu yang ditetapkan di mana setelah jangka waktu tersebut tiba maka obligasi dapat diuangkan sedangkan saham dapat dimiliki selamanya terkecuali pada obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh pemerintah Inggris yang disebut gilts yang tidak memiliki jangka waktu jatuh tempo Penerbit obligasi ini sangat luas sekali hampir setiap badan hukum dapat menerbitkan obligasi namun peraturan yang mengatur mengenai tata cara penerbitan obligasi ini sangat ketat sekali Penggolongan penerbit obligasi biasanya terdiri atas: Lembaga supranasional seperti misalnya Bank Investasi Eropa European Investment Bank atau Bank Pembangunan Asia Asian Development Bank Pemerintah suatu negara menerbitkan obligasi pemerintah dalam mata uang negaranya maupun Obligasi pemerintah dalam denominasi valuta asing yang biasa disebut dengan obligasi internasional sovereign bond Sub-sovereign propinsi negara atau otoritas daerah Di Amerika dikenal sebagai Obligasi daerah municipal bond Di Indonesia dikenal sebagai Surat Utang Negara SUN Lembaga pemerintah Obligasi ini biasa juga disebut agency bonds atau agencies Perusahaan yang menerbitkan obligasi swasta Special purpose vehicles adalah perusahaan yang didirikan dengan suatu tujuan khusus guna menguasai aset tertentu yang ditujukan guna penerbitan suatu obligasi yang biasa disebut Efek Beragun AsetProses penerbitan obligasi : Proses yang umum dikenal dalam penerbitan suatu obligasi adalah melalui penjamin emisi atau juga dikenal dengan istilah underwriting Dalam penjaminan emisi satu atau lebih perusahaan sekuritas akan membentuk suatu sindikasi guna membeli seluruh obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit dan menjualnya kembali kepada para investor Pada penjualan obligasi pemerintah biasanya melalui proses lelang Fitur yang terpenting dalam suatu obligasi adalah : Nilai nominal atau nilai utang pokok yaitu nilai yang harus dibayar bunganya oleh penerbit dan harus dilunasi pada saat akhir masa jatuh tempo Harga penerbitan yaitu suatu harga yang ditawarkan kepada investor pada saat penjualan perdana obligasi Nilai bersih yang diterima oleh penerbit adalah setelah dikurangi dengan biaya-biaya penerbitan Tanggal jatuh tempo yaitu suatu tanggal yang ditetapkan di mana pada saat tersebut penerbit wajib untuk melunasi nilai nominal obligasi Sepanjang pembayaran kembali / pelunasan tersebut telah dilakukan maka penerbit tidak lagi memiliki kewajiban kepada pemegang obligasi setelah lewat tanggal jatuh tempo obligasi tersebut Beberapa obligasi diterbitkan dengan masa jatuh tempo hinga lebih dari seratus tahun Pada awal tahun 2005 pasar atas obligasi euro dengan masa jatuh tempo selama 50 tahun mulai berkembang Pada pasaran Amerika dikenal 3 kelompok masa jatuh tempo obligasi yaitu Jangka pendek surat utang atau bill: yang masa jatuh temponya hingga 1 tahun Medium Term Note: masa jatuh temponya antara 1 hingga 10 tahun Jangka panjang obligasi atau bond: jatuh temponya di atas 10 tahun Kupon suku bunga yang dibayarkan oleh penerbit kepada pemegang obligasi Biasanya suku bunga ini memeiliki besaran yang tetap sepanjang masa berlakunya obligasi tetapi juga bisa mengacu kepada suatu indeks pasar uang seperti LIBOR dan lain-lain Istilah kupon ini asal mulanya digunakan karena dimasa lalu secara fisik obligasi diterbitkan bersama dengan kupon bunga yang melekat pada obligasi tersebut Pada tanggal pembayaran kupon pemegang obligasi akan menyerahkan kupon tersebut ke bank guna ditukarkan dengan pembayaran bunga bank pemabagian hasil terhadap bank atas 20 pajk utang Tanggal kupon tanggal pembayaran bunga dari penerbit kepada pemegang obligasi Di Amerika kebanyakan pembayaran kupon obligasi dilakukan secara tengah tahunan yang artinya pembayaran kupon dilakukan setiap 6 bulan sekali Di Eropa kebanyakan obligasi adalah secara tahunan atau 1 kupon pertahun Dokumen resmi suatu dokumen yang menjelaskan secara terinci hak-hak dari pemegang saham Di Amerika ketentuan ini diatur oleh departemen keuangan pemerintah dan undang-undang komersial di mana dokumen ini di hadapan pengadilan diperlakukan sebagai suatu kontrak Ketentuan dalam dokumen resmi tersebut sulit sekali diubah di mana perubahan hanya dapat dilakukan atas persetujuan mayoritas pemegang obligasi Hak opsi: suatu obligasi dapat memuat ketentuan mengenai hak opsi kepada pembeli obligasi ataupun penerbit obligasi Hak pelunasan beberapa obligasi memberikan hak kepada penerbit untuk melunasi obligasi tersebut sebelum masa jatuh tempo obligasi Obligasi jenis ini dikenal sebagai obligasi opsi beli Kebanyakan obligasi jenis ini memberikan hak kepada penerbit untuk melakukan pelunasan obligasi pada nilai pari Pada beberapa obligasi mengharuskan penerbit untuk membayar premi yang disebut premi opsi Ini utamanya digunakan bagi obligasi berbunga tinggi Pada obligasi jenis ini terdapat banyak sekali persyaratan yang ketat yang membatasi kegiatan operasional penerbit maka guna membebaskan penerbit dari pembatasan-pembatasan dilakukanlah pelunasan dini atas obligasi tersebut namun dengan biaya yang lebih tinggi Hak jual beberapa obligasi memberikan hak kepada pemegang obligasi untuk memaksa penerbit melakukan pelunasan awal atas obligasinya sebelum masa jatuh tempo lihat opsi jual Tanggal pelaksanaan opsi adalah tanggal dimaka opsi beli atau opsi jual dapat dilaksanakan sebelum masa jatuh tempo obligasi di mana pada umumnya terdapat 4 cara pelaksanaan opsi yang demikian ini yaitu : a Gaya Bermuda memiliki beberapa tanggal pelaksanaan yang biasanya disesuaiakan dengan tanggal kupon b Gaya Eropa hanya memiliki satu tanggal pelaksanaan ini merupakan kasus khusus gaya Bermuda c Gaya Amerika opsi dapat dilaksanakan setiap saat hingga masa jatuh tempo Penjualan karena kematian adalah opsi yang diberikan kepada ahli waris pemegang opsi untuk menjual kembali obligasinya kepada penerbit dalam hal terjadinya kematian pada pemegang obligasi atau menderita cacat tetap Dana jaminan atau yang juga dikenal dengan istilah sinking fund adalah suatu syarat dalam dokumen resmi yang mensyaratkan adanya suatu porsi tertentu dari obligasi yang dapat dicairkan berkala Penerbit juga dapat membayar kepada wali amanat yaitu dengan cara melakukan pembelian secara acak atas obligasi yang diterbitkannya atau pilihan lainnya dengan membeli obligasi di pasaran lalu menyerahkannya kepada wali amanat Obligasi konversi adalah obligasi yang mengizinkan pemegang obligasi untuk menukarkan obligasi yang dipegangnya dengan sejumlah saham perusahaan penerbit Obligasi tukar atau dikenal juga dengan nama Exchangeable bond XB yang memperkenankan pemegang obligasi untuk menukarkan obligasi yang dipegangnya dengan saham perusahaan selain daripada saham perusahaan penerbit biasanya dengan saham anak perusahaan penerbit Di samping menghadapi risiko perkembangan suku bunga yang sulit dipantau pemegang obligasi juga menghadapi risiko kapabilitas capabilities risk yaitu pelunasan sebelum jatuh tempo Sebelum obligasi ditawarkan di pasar terlebih dulu dibuat peringkat rating oleh badan yang mempunyai wewenang Rating tersebut disebut sebagai credit rating yang merupakan skala risiko dari semua obligasi yang diperdagangkan Skala ini menunjukkan seberapa aman suatu obligasi bagi pemodal Keamanan ini ditunjukkan dengan kemampuannya untuk membayar bunga dan melunasi pokok pinjaman Salah satu varian produk obligasi adalah obligasi konversi Obligasi konversi sekilas tidak ada bedanya dengan obligasi biasa misalnya memberikan kupon yang tetap memiliki jatuh tempo dan memiliki nilai nominal atau nilai pari var value Hanya saja obligasi konversi memiliki keunikan yaitu dapat ditukar dengan saham biasa Pada obligasi konversi selalu tercantum persyaratan untuk melakukan konversi Misalnya setiap obligasi konversi bisa dikonversi menjadi 3 saham biasa setelah 1 Januari 2005 dengan harga konversi yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya Sama dengan alat investasi yang lainnya obligasi konversi tidak ubahnya dengan menabung Bedanya surat tanda menabung tidak dapat diperjualbelikan sedangkan obligasi konversi dapat diperjualbelikan Pilihan terhadap alat investasi ini karena kemampuannya memberikan penghasilan optimal sebab obligasi konversi bisa digunakan sebagai obligasi atau saham Apabila suku bunga yang ditawarkan obligasi konversi lebih tinggi dari suku bunga bank atau perusahaan tidak membagikan dividen yang besar maka pemegang obligasi konversi tidak perlu mengonversikan obligasi konversinya Bila diperkirakan emiten berhasil mendapatkan laba yang tinggi sehingga mampu membagi dividen yang lebih besar daripada bunga obligasi konversi pemegang obligasi konversi lebih baik mengonversi obligasinya menjadi saham untuk mendapatkan dividen Imbalan yang dapat diperoleh pemegang obligasi konversi dapat terdiri dari bunga bila mempertahankan sebagai obligasi dividen bila melakukan konversi capital gain bila berhasil menjual obligasinya dengan harga lebih tinggi daripada harga perolehannya atau mendapatkan diskon saat membeli Capital gain juga bisa didapat jika pemegang obligasi konversi melakukan konversi kemudian berhasil menjual saham tersebut di atas harga perolehannya C Jenis Obligasi Beberapa perusahaan bank pemerintah dan lembaga berwenang lainnya dapat menerbitkan obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang valuta asing lainnya yang tampak lebih stabil dibandingkan mata uang domestiknya Penerbitan obligasi dalam denominasi valuta asing ini juga memberikan kemungkinan bagi penerbit obligasi ini memasuki pasar perdagangan obligasi di luar negaranya Penerbitan obligasi ini juga sering digunakan sebagai suatu sarana lindung nilai terhadap risiko gejolak perubahan nilai tukar Beberapa obligasi ini dijuluki dengan nama panggilan yang khas seperti terlihat di bawah ini : Obligasi Eurodollar atau Eurodollar bond Obligasi berdenominasi USD yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Amerika Obligasi Kangguru atau Kangaroo bondadalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang dolar Australia AUD yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Australia dan diperdagangkan pada pasar Australia Obligasi Maple atau Maple bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang dolar Kanada yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Kanada dan diperdagangkan pada pasar Kanada Obligasi Samurai atau Samurai bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang yen yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Jepang dan diperdagangkan pada pasar Jepang Obligasi Yankee atau Yankee bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang USD yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Amerika dan diperdagangkan pada pasar Amerika Obligasi Shogun atau Shogun bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang dolar yen yang diterbitkan di Jepang oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Jepang Bulldog bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang poundsterling yang diterbitkan di London oleh suatu lembaga atau pemerintahan asing Pinjaman Ninja atau Ninja loan suatu pinjaman sindikasi dalam denominasi mata uang yen oleh kreditur asing Obligasi Formosa atau Formosa bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang dolar baru Taiwan yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar Taiwan dan diperdagangkan pada pasar Taiwan Obligasi Panda atau Panda bond adalah obligasi dalam denominasi mata uang renminbi RMB yang diterbitkan oleh penerbit obligasi dari suatu negara di luar RRT dan diperdagangkan pada pasar Cina Ada dua jenis pasar obligasi yaitu: 1 Pasar Primer Merupakan tempat diperdagangkannya obligasi saat mulai diterbitkan Salah satu persyaratan ketentuan Pasar Modal obligasi harus dicatatkan di bursa efek untuk dapat ditawarkan kepada masyarakat dalam hal ini lazimnya adalah di Bursa Efek Surabaya BES sekarang Bursa Efek Indonesia BEI 2 Pasar Sekunder Merupakan tempat diperdagangkannya obligasi setelah diterbitkan dan tercarat di BES perdagangan obligasi akan dilakukan di Pasar Sekunder Pada saat ini perdagangan akan dilakukan secara Over the Counter OTC Artinya tidak ada tempat perdagangan secara fisik Pemegang obligasi serta pihak yang ingin membelinya akan berinteraksi dengan bantuan perangkat elektronik seperti email online trading atau telepon Sebagai fatwa Dewan Syariah Nasional DSN No 32/DSN-MUI/IX/2002 obligasi syariah adalah suatu surat berharga jangka panjang berdasarkan prinsip syariah yang dikeluarkan emiten kepada pemegang obligasi syariah yang mewajibkan emiten untuk membayar pendapatan kepada pemegang obligasi syariah berupa bagi hasil/margin/fee serta membayar kembali dana obligasi pada saat jatuh tempo Obligasi syariah bukan merupakan utang berbunga tetap tetapi lebih merupakan penyerta dana yang didasarkan pada prinsip bagi hasil Transaksinya bukan akad utang-piutang melainkan pernyataan Obligasi sejenis ini lazim dinamakan muqaradhah bond dimana merupakan nama lain dari mudharabah Dalam bentuknya yang sederhana obligasi syariah diterbitkan oleh sebuah perusahaan atau emiten sebagai pengelola atau mudharib dan dibeli oleh investor atau shahib maal Dana yang terhimpun disalurkan untuk mengembangkan usaha lama atau pembangunan suatu unit baru yang benar-benar berbeda dari usaha lama Bentuk alokasi dana yang khusus specially dedicated dalam syariah di kenal dengan istilah mudharabah muqayyadah Atas penyertaannya inversot berhak mendapatkan nisbah keuntungan tertentu yang dihitung secara proporsional dan dibayarkan secara periodik Berdasarkan pengertian dan karakteristik obligasi syariah yang telah diapaparkan maka dapat diketahui bahwa obligasi syariah berbeda dengan konsep obligasi konvensional yang sudah dikenal di kalangan praktisi dan masyarakat pada umumnya Menurut Magginson 1997 obligasi adalah instrumen hutang jangka panjang yang digunakan oleh perusahaan atas pemerintah untuk meningkatkan uang modal khusus dari sekelompok pemberi pinjaman yang berbeda Kebanyakan obligasi membayar bunga secara semesteran tiap enam bulan pada tingkat bunga kupon yang telah ditentukan memiliki jatuh tempo awal 10 sampai 30 tahun Dan par value nilai nominal yang harus dibayar kembali pada saat jatuh tempo Menurut definisi dari Bursa Efek Indonesia obligasi merupakan surat utang jangka menengah-panjang yang dapat dipindahtangankan yang berisi janji dari pihak yang menerbitkan untuk membayar imbalan berupa bunga pada periode tertentu dan melunasi pokok hutang pada waktu yang telah ditentukan kepada pihak pembeli obligasi tersebut Obligasi ini merupakan fixed income security yang memberikan bunga kepada pemegangnya sebagai pendapatan bondholder Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan karakteristik obligasi syariah yang tidak mendasar pada bunga tetapi pada bagi hasil/margin/fee Selain itu ada beberapa hal lain yang membedakan antara obligasi syariah dengan obligasi konvensional diantaranya tentang syarat adanya underlying asset dalam penerbitan Perbedaan antara obligasi syariah obligasi konvensional dan saham menurut Adam amp Thomas 2004 adalah sebagai berikut: Perbedaan antara Obligasi Syariah dan Obligasi Konvensional Instrumen Obligasi Syariah sukuk Obligasi Sifat Bukan merupakan hutang bagi penerbitnya tetapi merupakan lembar saham kepemilikan atas asset/ proyek/jasa spesifik yang tidak dibagikan Hutang bagi penerbitnya Nilai buku asset Minimum 51 asset berwujud tangible asset pada kontrak mereka disyaratkan untuk menyokong penerbitan sukuk al-ijarah Secara umum tidak mensyaratkan Tuntutan claim Pemilik menuntut atas asset/proyek/jasa yang dijaminkan dan lain-lain Kreditor menuntut atas peminjaman hutang dan pada beberapa kasus menerapkan hokum gadai atas asset Keamanan Keamanan dijamin oleh hak kepemilikan atas asset atau proyek yang dijaminkan Dalam penjaminan asset atau proyek selain bentuk-bentuk peningkatan jaminan yang telah ditentukan Secara umum obligasi tidak aman kecuali pada kasus seperti firs mortgage bond obligasi yang dijamin dengan properti equipment trust certificates obligasi yang dijamin dengan asset tertentu dan lain-lain Prinsip dan pengembalian return Tidak dijamin oleh penerbit Dijamin oleh penerbit Tujuan Harus diterbitkan hanya untuk tujuan halal secara Islami Dapat diterbitkan untuk beberapa tujuan Perdagangan Sekuritas Penjualan atas minat kepemilikan pada asset/proyek/jasa yang spesifik dan lain-lain Penjualan atas intrumen hutang Tanggung jawab pemegang/pemilik Tanggung jawab untuk kewajiban yang telah ditentukan berkaitan dengan asset/proyek/transaksi yang dijaminkan terbatas pada partisipasi dalam penerbitan Bondhoder / pemegang obligasi tidak bertanggungjawab atas kondisi keuangan penerbit Obligasi yang dikeluarkan oleh emiten juga beragam jenisnya tergantung keinginan dari emiten itu sendiri Jenis-jenis obligasi seperti halnya saham dapat dilihat dari berbagai segi sebagai berikut: 1 Ditinjau dari segi peralihan a Obligasi atas unjuk bearer bonds Obligasi atas unjuk adalah obligasi yang tidak tercantum nama pemiliknya dan dapat ditransfer dari satu pemilik ke pemilik lain cukup melalui penyerahan saja b Obligasi atas nama registered bonds Obligasi atas nama yang harus diperjualbelikan melalui bursa efek 2 Ditinjau dari segi cara penetapan dan pembayaran bunga dan pokok a Obligasi dengan bunga tetap Bunga pada obligasi ini ditetapkan pada awal penjualan obligasi dan tidak berubah sampai dengan jatuh tempo b Obligasi dengan bunga tidak tetap mengambang Bunga pada obligasi ini ditetapkan pada waktu pertama kali untuk kupon pertama sedangkan pada waktu jatuh tempo kupon pertama akan ditentukan tingkat bunga untuk kupon berikutnya demikian seterusnya Biasanya obligasi dengan bunga mengambang ini ditentukan relatif terhadap suatu patokan suku bunga misalnya 1 di atas JIBOR Jakarta Inter Bank Offering Rate 15 di atas LIBOR London Inter Bank Offering Rate c Obligasi tanpa bunga Obligasi tanpa bunga atau biasa dikenal dengan nama Zero coupon bonds adalah suatu obligasi yang tidak memberikan pembayaran bunga secara berkala atau tanpa kupon sebagaimana obligasi pada umumnya Obligasi ini diperdagangkan dengan menggunakan harga diskonto dari nilai pari Pemegang obligasi berhak untuk menerima pembayaran secara penuh pada saat yang telah ditentukan pada masa jatuh tempo obligasi Investor menerima keuntungan bunga berupa selisih antara harga diskonto dan nilai pari obligasi saat jatuh tempo 3 Ditinjau dari segi penerbit a Obligasi oleh pemerintah Obligasi pemerintah atau biasa juga disebut government bond adalah suatu obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh pemerintahan suatu negara dalam denominasi mata uang negara tersebut Obligasi pemerintah dalam denominasi valuta asing biasa disebut dengan obligasi internasional sovereign bond b Obligasi oleh swasta Obligasi swasta atau obligasi perusahaan yang dalam istilah asing dikenal sebagai corporate bond adalah suatu istilah yang digunakan bagi instrumen utang jangka panjang yang pada umumnya berjangka waktu sekurangnya 1 tahun sejak tanggal penerbitannya Istilah surat berharga komersial atau commercial paper kadangkala digunakan bagi instrumen utang dengan jangka waktu jatuh tempo yang lebih pendek Kadangkala istilah obligasi swasta digunakan bagi seluruh obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh lembaga non pemerintah dalam denominasi mata uang setempat Namun secara tegas istilah ini hanya digunakan bagi obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh perusahaan Obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh penguasa setempat dan organisasi supranasional tidak termasuk dalam kategori ini Obligasi swasta ini seringkali terdaftar pada bursa efek dan Jaringan komunikasi elektronik Electronic communication network – ECN seperti Market Axess dan kupon obligasi biasanya tidak dikenai pajak Kadangkala pula obligasi ini diterbitkan dengan tanpa kupon bunga namun dengan nilai pencairan obligasi yang tinggi sekali dibandingkan dengan nilai jualnya Walaupun obligasi ini terdaftar di pasar modal namun perdagangan terbesar dari obligasi ini yang paling berkembang dibeberapa pasar perdagangan adalah terpusat pada suatu pasar tertentu atau pialang tertentu dan sering pula dilakukan perdagangan di luar bursa over the counter Beberapa obligasi swasta diterbitkan dengan memiliki unsur opsi beli yang memberikan hak kepada penerbit obligasi untuk melunasi / menebus obligasinya sebelum tanggal jatuh tempo yang tercantum Dan pada obligasi konversi dapat pula dikonversikan dengan saham perusahaan tersebut 4 Ditinjau dari segi jatuh tempo a Obligasi jangka pendek b Obligasi jangka menengah c Obligasi jangka panjang Di Amerika obligasi dibedakan menjadi beberapa jenis yaitu Treasury bond obligasi pemerintah pusat Municipal bond obligasi pemerintah negara bagian dan Corporate bond obligasi perusahaan swasta Namun di Indonesia hanya dikenal dua jenis obligasi yaitu obligasi negara dan obligasi korporasi 1 Treasury Bond Pemerintah dalam hal ini Treasury department di Indonesia disebut dengan kantor kas dan pendapatan negara atau Departemen Keuangan dapat meminjam dana jangka panjang dari masyarakat dengan menerbitkan treasury note yang memiliki waktu jatuh tempo satu sampai 10 tahun atau treasury bond yang memiliki waktu jatuh tempo 10 sampai 30 tahun Ingat kembali bahwa surat utang pemerintah jangka pendek yang memiliki waktu jatuh tempo kurang dari satu tahun disebut treasury bills Surat utang jangka panjang pemerintah pusat bebas dari risiko default free of default risk karena pemerintah pasti mengembalikan utangnya Hal itu dimungkinkan karena pemerintah pusat memiliki hak untuk mencetak uang untuk membiayai utangnya bila diperlukan Akan tetapi hal itu tidak berarti bahwa sekuritas tersebut tidak berisiko risk-free Investor masih menghadapi risiko naiknya suku bunga yang akan membuat nilai atau harga sekuritas tersebut menurun ingat bahwa harga obligasi berbanding terbalik dengan suku bunga Karena treasury bond tidak memiliki risiko default sekuritas tersebut memberikan suku bunga yang sangat rendah Meskipun demikian suku bunga rata-ratanya masih diatas rata-rata suku bunga pasar uang yang merupakan instrumen jangka pendek Pada tahun 1985 departemen keuangan mulai menerbitkan sekuritas dengan system book entry transaksi dilakukan melalui media elektronik tanpa dokumen dimana pembayaran suku bunga secara periodik dibedakan dari pembayaran kembali pinjaman pokok yang disebut Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal Securities STRIPS Dengan memiliki sekuritas tersebut investor biasanya lembaga penyimpanan dapat menjualnya kembali secara terpisah pinjaman pokoknya saja atau suku bunganya saja Sebelumnya pada tahun 1982 sektor swasta sudah menciptakan sekuritas yang mirip disebut Treasury Investment Growth Funds yaitu dengan membeli sekuritas treasury dengan pembayaran kupon secara periodik disebut coupon bond kemudian memecahnya menjadi sekuritas baru yaitu obligasi tanpa pembayaran kupon disebut zero-coupon bond Swasta dan pemerintah menciptakan sekuritas tersebut memecah sekuritas untuk meningkatkan keuntungan dengan menjawab kebutuhan investor yang ingin menghindari risiko reinvestasi reinvestmenr risk Bagi investor meskipun obligasi memberikan bunga tetap investasi tersebut mengandung risiko ketidakpastian pengembalian Risiko itu muncul karena pembayaran kupon bunga obligasi selama periode investasi misalnya sepuluh tahun harus diinvestasikan kembali Reinvestasi mengandung risiko karena suku bunga yang berlaku pada saat reinvestasi tidak dapat dipastikan berfluktuasi sehingga tingkat pengembalian obligasi secara keseluruhan juga berfluktuasi Sebaliknya tingkat pengembalian dari ­zero coupon bond tanpa pembayaran kupon bunga dapat diketahui pada awal pembelian obligasi sehingga tidak terdapat risiko reinvestasi reinvestment risk Dengan demikian investor bersedia menerima suku bunga yang lebih rendah dibandingkan jenis obligasi dengan pembayaran kupon Dengan melakukan pemecahan treasury coupon bond menjadi treasury strip tanpa pembayaran kupon zero coupon bond maka investor dapat menghindari reinvestment risk dan penerbit obligasi dapat meningkatkan keuntungannya Sebagai contoh sebuah bank membeli treasury dengan nilai 1juta dengan kupon sebesar 10 selama periode 10 tahun dan dijual pada harga par pada waktu jatuh tempo Pembayaran kupon cash payment dari obligasi tersebut tertera dalam tabel nanti Bank tersebut kemudian membuat sekuritas baru dengan memecah strip obligasi tersebut menjadi sepuluh zero coupon bond masing-masing seharga 100000 dengan suku bunga lebih rendah misalnya 975 Untuk memudahkan perhitungan suku bunga pasar untuk mengukur present value dari pembayaran kupon diasumsikan sama Dengan menghitung present value dari zero coupon bond diperoleh nilai 1015528 yang lebih besar dari harga beli treasury coupon bond sebesar 1juta Apabila biaya menerbitkan sekuritas baru tersebut yaitu jika bank mengumpulkan pembayaran treasury coupun bond kemudian meneruskannya pass them through kepada pemegang zero coupon strip lebih rendah dari 15528 maka bank akan memperoleh keuntungan 2 Municipal Bond Municipal Bond adalah surat utang jangka panjang obligasi yang diterbitkan oleh pemerintah negara bagian di Amerika Serikat untuk membiayai kepentingan publik atau umum seperti membangun gedung sekolah jalan umum dan prasarana umum lainnya Obligasi jenis itu bebas dari pajak Ada dua jenis municipal bond yaitu general obligation bond dan revenue bond General obligation bond tidak memiliki sumber pembayaran yang jelas hanya dijamin dengan full faith and credit dari penerbitnya yaitu janji akan membayar utangnya dari semua sumber daya yang ada Biasanya dibayar dari penghasilan pajak sehingga untuk menerbitkan sekuritas itu harus mendapat persetujuan dari pembayar pajak Revenue bond dijamin dari pendapatan suatu proyek revenue generating project Sebagai contoh obligasi yang diterbitkan untuk membiayai pembangunan jalan tol akan dibayar dari pendapatan pengoperasian jalan tol tersebut Jika pendapatannya tidak cukup maka investor akan mengalami kerugian Hal ini menunjukkan municipal bond tidak default free Tahun Pembayaran Kupon Suku Bunga Zero Coupon Bond Nilai Sekarang PV Zero Coupon Bond 1 100000 975 91116 2 100000 975 83022 3 100000 975 75646 4 100000 975 68926 5 100000 975 62802 6 100000 975 57223 7 100000 975 52140 8 100000 975 47508 9 100000 975 43287 10 100000 975 39442 11 1000000 975 394416 Total 1015528 3 Corporate Bond Corporate bond atau Obligasi korporasi adalah surat utang yang diterbitkan oleh perusahaan besar untuk mencari dana jangka panjang Pada umumnya sekuritas itu memiliki face value 1000 dan memberikan pembayaran bunga dua kali dalam setahun semiannually Selain itu corporate bond pada umumnya bersifat callable yaitu penerbit dapat menarik kembali to redeem obligasinya setiap saat Derajat risiko corporate bond bervariasi bergantung pada kondisi kesehatan perusahaan penerbitnya Suku bunga corporate bond dan obligasi lainnya bervariasi selain dipengaruhi risiko default juga tingkat likuiditas pembebanan pajak penghasilan dan jangka waktu pinjaman a Risiko default Obligasi yang memiliki risiko default seperti obligasi korporasi akan memiliki risk premium premi risiko yaitu selisih antara suku bunga obligasi yang memiliki risiko default dengan obligasi yang bebas risiko default free seperti treasury bond Semakin tinggi derajat risiko obligasi semakin tinggi risk premium sehingga suku bunga yang diberikan obligasi tersebut akan lebih tinggi dibandingkan obligasi yang bebas risiko Untuk mengetahui derajat risiko obligasi tertentu dapat diperoleh dengan mempelajari bond rating peringkat obligasi seperti yang disediakan oleh lembaga pemeringkat terkenal Moody’s Investors Service dan Standard and Poor’s Corporation Obligasi yang memiliki risiko default rendah dengan peringkat Baa BBB atau lebih tinggi disebut Speculative-grade atau dikenal dengan sebutan junk bond dan memberikan suku bunga yang tinggi b Likuiditas Suku bunga obligasi juga dipengaruhi tingkat likuiditas yaitu kemudahan atau kecepatan sekuritas untuk dikonversi menjadi dana tunai dengan biaya rendah Sekuritas dengan tingkat likuiditas yang tinggi akan lebih disukai dibandingkan sekuritas dengan tingkat likuiditas yang rendah faktor lain dianggap tetap Treasure bond memiliki tingkat likuiditas yang paling tinggi karena sekuritas tersebut memiliki pasar yang luas deep mudah dijual secara cepat dengan biaya rendah Obligasi korporasi memiliki tingkat likuiditas yang relative rendah karena hanya sedikit sekuritas dari suatu perusahaan tertentu yang ditransaksikan di pasar sehingga dalam keadaan darurat emergency akan sangat mahal menjual sekuritas tersebut karena sulit untuk mendapatkan pembeli dengan cepat c Pembebanan pajak penghasilan Municipal Bond yang tidak default free dalam kurun waktu yang lama lebih dari 40 tahun ternyata memberikan suku bunga yang lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan treasury bond yang default free Keanehan tersebut terjawab karena municipal bond tidak dikenakan pajak penghasilan Dengan tingkat pajak penghasilan sebesar 40 municipal bond dengan nilai 1000 dan memberikan kupon sebesar 80 yanglebih menguntungkan dibandingkan dengan treasury bond dengan nilai yang sama dan pembayaran kupon sebesar 100 Karena municipal bond tidak dikenakan pajak pembayaran kupon sebesar 80 setara dengan suku bunga sebesar 8 Sebaliknya meskipun suku bunga treasury bond lebih besar yaitu 10 pajak penghasilan sebesar 40 mengurangi kupon yang diterima yaitu hanya sebesar 60 atau setara dengan suku bunga 6 Dengan demikian pembebanan pajak penghasilan menurunkan suku bunga riil dari treasury bond dan hal itu sejalan dengan risiko default yang dikandungnya Obligasi korporasi memiliki beberapa karakteristik antara lain: · Registered bond Pada awalnya obligasi merupakan bearer bond yang memberikan pembayaran bunga kepada mereka yang memegang kupon bond Kini bearer bond telah diganti dengan registered bond yang dijual tanpa kupon Meskipun demikian suku bunga obligasi tetap disebut dengan coupon interest payment Untuk memperoleh pembayaran bunga pemegang obligasi mendaftarkan dirinya ke penerbit · Restrictive covenants Karena manajer perusahaan lebih memperhatikan kepentingan para pemegang saham daripada pemegang obligasi manajer direkrut diberhentikan dan besaran kompensasinya ditentukan oleh dewan direksi yang mewakili pemegang saham maka pemegang obligasi menginginkan adanya Restrictive covenants yaitu perjanjian yang membatasi perilaku penerbit seperti: membatasi jumlah dividen yang dapat dibayar oleh perusahaan membatasi kemampuan perusahaan untuk menerbitkan tambahan uang dan menghalangi manajer untuk melakukan merger Semakin banyak batasan yang dikenakan terhadap manajemen dalam Restrictive covenants semakin aman obligasi tersebut sehingga suku bunga yang diberikan juga rendah · Call provision Karakteristik ini memberi hak kepada perusahaan penerbit untuk menarik kembali obligasinya disebut callable bond Alasan perusahaan untuk menarik kembali obligasinya antara lain: 1 Dapat membeli kembali obligasinya dengan harga lebih murah apabila suku bunga turun ingat bila suku pasar turun kewajiban penerbit dengan bunga tetap jangka panjang menjadi sangat mahal 2 Menghindari sinking fund yaitu kewajiban membayar bagian dari utang pokok setiap tahun 3 Menghindari batasan terhadap manajemen untuk menerbitkan saham apabila kondisi menguntungkan 4 Untuk merubah struktur capital misalnya: ketika perusahaan memiliki kelebihan dana Callable bonds tidak disukai oleh pemegang obligasi karena perusahaan penerbit memiliki hak untuk menarik kembali obligasinya Namun callable bonds memberikan pengembalian yang lebih tinggi apabila dibandingkan dengan noncallable bonds · Convertible bonds Beberapa obligasi dapat diubah menjadi saham sehingga memungkinkan pemegang obligasi menikmati keuntungan perusahaan apabila harga saham meningkat Selain itu pemegang obligasi memiliki opsi untuk tidak melakukan konversi bila kondisi perusahaan memburuk Karakteristik tersebut dapat menghindari pandangan negative pasar terhadap perusahaan penerbitnya Harga obligasi dengan konversi lebih mahal yang berarti juga memberikan suku bunga lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan obligasi tanpa konversi ingat harga obligasi berbanding terbalik dengan suku bunga Ada beberapa jenis obligasi korporasi yang dibedakan berdasarkan jenis jaminannya dan urutan pembayaran apabila perusahaan mengalami default yaitu: · Secured bond Adalah surat utang yang memiliki jaminan collateral Sebuah gedung dapat dijadikan jaminan untuk membiayai konstruksinya dan apabila perusahaan gagal maka pemegang obligasi dapat melikuidasi gedung tersebut Secured bond memiliki risiko rendah sehingga memberikan suku bunga yang rendah pula · Unsecured bonds Obligasi jenis ini hanya dijamin dengan kepercayaan dari penerbitnya disebut juga dengan debentures Surat utang tersebut memiliki prioritas klaim terhadap asset yang lebih rendah risiko lebih tinggi sehingga memberikan suku bunga yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan secured bonds Subordinated debentures memiliki prioritas klaim terhadap asset yang lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan debentures sehingga menghadapi risiko default yang lebih tinggi dan memberikan suku bunga yang lebih tinggi pula · Variable-rate bonds Dapat berupa obligasi yang dijamin atau tidak dijamin Suku bunga obligasi jenis itu berubah dengan berubahnya suku bunga pasar seperti suku bunga treasury bond Inovasi munculnya surat utang tersebut dipicu oleh suku bunga yang sangat berfluktuasi pada tahun 1980 dan 1990-an · Junk bonds Perusahaan pemberi peringkat seperti Moody’s Investors Service dan Standard and Poor’s Corporation memberi peringkat sekuritas menurut risiko default yang dikandungnya Obligasi dengan peringkat AAA dikatakan sebagai obligasi yang memiliki peringkat tertinggi yang memiliki tingkat risiko default terendah Obligasi di atas peringkat Baa menurut Moody’s dan BBB menurut Standard and Poor’s Corporation dikategorikan sebagai Investment grade Sedangkan obligasi dengan peringkat dibawahnya dikategorikan sebagai speculative grade atau disebut juga junk bonds Karena berisiko junk bonds memberikan suku bunga yang tinggi D Karakteristik Obligasi 1 Nilai nominal atau nilai utang pokok yaitu nilai yang harus dibayar bunganya oleh penerbit dan harus dilunasi pada saat akhir masa jatuh tempo 2 Harga penerbitan yaitu suatu harga yang ditawarkan kepada investor pada saat penjualan perdana obligasi Nilai bersih yang diterima oleh penerbit adalah setelah dikurangi dengan biaya-biaya penerbit 3 Tanggal jatuh tempo yaitu suatu tanggal yang ditetapkan dimana pada saat tersebut penerbit wajib untuk melunasi nilai nominal obligasi Sepanjang pembayaran kembali / pelunasan tersebut telah dilakukan maka penerbit tidak lagi memiliki kewajiban kepada pemegang obligasi setelah lewat tanggal jatuh tempo obligasi tersebut Beberapa obligasi diterbitkan dengan masa jatuh tempo hinga lebih dari seratus tahun Pada awal tahun 2005 pasar atas obligasi euro dengan masa jatuh tempo selama 50 tahun mulai berkembang Pada pasaran Amerika dikenal 3 kelompok masa jatuh tempo obligasi yaitu: a Jangka pendek surat utang atau bill: yang masa jatuh temponya hingga 1 tahun b Medium Term Note : masa jatuh temponya antara 1 hingga 10 tahun c Jangka panjang obligasi atau bond: jatuh temponya di atas 10 tahun 4 Kupon suku bunga yang dibayarkan oleh penerbit kepada pemegang obligasi Biasanya suku bunga ini memeiliki besaran yang tetap sepanjang masa berlakunya obligasi tetapi juga bisa mengacu kepada suatu indeks pasar uang seperti LIBOR dan lain-lain Istilah kupon ini asal mulanya digunakan karena dimasa lalu secara fisik obligasi diterbitkan bersama dengan kupon bunga yang melekat pada obligasi tersebut Pada tanggal pembayaran kupon pemegang obligasi akan menyerahkan kupon tersebut ke bank guna ditukarkan dengan pembayaran bunga 5 Tanggal kupon tanggal pembayaran bunga dari penerbit kepada pemegang obligasi Di Amerika kebanyakan pembayaran kupon obligasi dilakukan secara tengah tahunan yang artinya pembayaran kupon dilakukan setiap 6 bulan sekali Di Eropa kebanyakan obligasi adalah secara tahunan atau 1 kupon pertahun 6 Dokumen resmi suatu dokumen yang menjelaskan secara terinci hak-hak dari pemegang saham Di Amerika ketentuan ini diatur oleh departemen keuangan pemerintah dan undang-undang komersial dimana dokumen ini di hadapan pengadilan diperlakukan sebagai suatu kontrak Ketentuan dalam dokumen resmi tersebut sulit sekali diubah dimana perubahan hanya dapat dilakukan atas persetujuan mayoritas pemegang obligasi 7 Hak opsi: suatu obligasi dapat memuat ketentuan mengenai hak opsi kepada pembeli obligasi ataupun penerbit obligasi 8 Hak pelunasan beberapa obligasi memberikan hak kepada penerbit untuk melunasi obligasi tersebut sebelum masa jatuh tempo obligasi Obligasi jenis ini dikenal sebagai obligasi opsi beli Kebanyakan obligasi jenis ini memberikan hak kepada penerbit untuk melakukan pelunasan obligasi pada nilai pari Pada beberapa obligasi mengharuskan penerbit untuk membayar premi yang disebut premi opsi Ini utamanya digunakan bagi obligasi berbunga tinggi Pada obligasi jenis ini terdapat banyak sekali persyaratan yang ketat yang membatasi kegiatan operasional penerbit maka guna membebaskan penerbit dari pembatasan-pembatasan dilakukanlah pelunasan dini atas obligasi tersebut namun dengan biaya yang lebih tinggi 9 Hak jual beberapa obligasi memberikan hak kepada pemegang obligasi untuk memaksa penerbit melakukan pelunasan awal atas obligasinya sebelum masa jatuh tempo lihat opsi jual 10 Tanggal pelaksanaan opsi adalah tanggal dimaka opsi beli atau opsi jual dapat dilaksanakan sebelum masa jatuh tempo obligasi dimana pada umumnya terdapat 4 cara pelaksanaan opsi yang demikian ini yaitu: a Gaya Bermuda memiliki beberapa tanggal pelaksanaan yang biasanya disesuaiakan dengan tanggal kupon b Gaya Eropa hanya memiliki satu tanggal pelaksanaan ini merupakan kasus khusus gaya Bermuda c Gaya Amerika opsi dapat dilaksanakan setiap saat hingga masa jatuh tempo d Penjualan karena kematian adalah opsi yang diberikan kepada ahli waris pemegang opsi untuk menjual kembali obligasinya kepada penerbit dalam hal terjadinya kematian pada pemegang obligasi atau menderita cacat tetap E Risiko Obligasi Bagi penerbit dan pembeli obligasi risiko yang sering dihadapi adalah risiko karena perubahan suku bunga Apabila suku bunga naik harga obligasi akan turun pembeli obligasi rugi dan apabila suku bunga turun harga obligasi akan naik penerbit obligasi yang rugi Karena itu kemudian muncul obligasi yang ditawarkan dengan suku bunga mengambang floating rate Misalnya ditentukan bahwa suku bunga obligasi sama dengan suku bunga rata-rata deposito jangka waktu enam bulan pada bank-bank pemerintah ditambah dengan 100 Suad Husnan dan Enny Pudjiastuti 2004:370 Menurut Fabozzi dalam Maria Immacuatta 2006 ada beberapa risiko yang dihadapi oleh investor dalam investasi obligasi yaitu sebagai berikut: 1 Interest-Rate Risk Harga dari sebuah obligasi akan berubah pada arah yang berlawanan dari perubahan tingkat bunga: Jika tingkat suku bunga naik maka harga obligasi akan turun Begitu pula sebaliknya jika suku bunga turun maka harga obligasi akan naik Jika seorang investor harus menjual obligasi sebelum jatuh tempo peningkatan tingkat suku bunga bermakna bahwa investor akan mengalami capital loss misal investor menjual obligasi dibawah harga beli Risiko jenis ini dikenal dengan interest-rate risk atau market risk Risiko ini merupakan risiko yang pada umumnya dialami oleh investor pada pasar obligasi 2 Reinvestment Risk Variabilitas pada tingkat reinvestment akibat adanya perubahan pada tingkat bunga pasar dinamakan reinvestment risk 3 Call Risk Sebagian perusahaan menetapkan untuk menarik atau membeli obligasi yang diterbitkannya pada harga dan waktu tertentu Hal ini menyebabkan investor akan mengalami call risk dimana pada tanggal tertentu perusahaan penerbit obligasi akan menarik kembali obligasinya 4 Default Risk Default Risk juga berkaitan dengan risiko gagal bayar artinya risiko penerbit obligasi yang mengalami kebangkrutan Akibat adanya risiko ini obligasi yang memiliki Default Risk dalam perdagangan di pasar obligasi mempunyai harga yang rendah dibandingkan dengan US Treasury securities Dilain pihak obligasi ini dalam perdagangan di pasar obligasi memiliki yield yang lebih besar dari treasury bond 5 Inflation Risk Peningkatan Inflation risk atau purchasing power risk disebabkan oleh bervariasinya nilai aliran kas yang diterima oleh investor akibat dampak adanya security due inflasi Contohnya jika investor membeli obligasi pada coupon rate sebesar 7 tetapi tingkat inflasi adalah 8 maka purchasing power aliran kas secara nyata akan dikurangi 6 Exchange-Rate Risk Obligasi yang diperdagangkan denominasi valuta asing memiliki nilai yang tidak dapat diketahui dengan pasti Nilai obligasi dalam mata uang lokal baru dapat diketahui ketika pembayaran kupon atau nilai pokok pinjaman terjadi 7 Liquidity Risk Liquidity atau marketable risk bergantung pada kemudahan suatu obligasi untuk dijual kembali sebesar nilai obligasinya 8 Volatility Risk Harga suatu jenis obligasi tertentu bergantung pada tingkat suku bunga dan faktor-faktor lainnya yang mempengaruhi nilai obligasi tersebut Perubahan pada faktor-faktor tersebut berpengaruh pada harga obligasi Risiko jenis ini dikenal dengan volatility risk F Pihak-Pihak Yang Terlibat Dalam Penerbitan Obligasi Syariah Dalam penerbitan obligasi syariah akan melibatkan beberapa pihak yang saling terkait satu dengan yang lainnya Pihak-pihak tersebut menurut Sunarsih 2008 adalah: 1 Obligor Obligor adalah pihak yang bertanggungjawab atas pembayaran imbalan dan nilai nominal sukuk yang diterbitkan sampai dengan sukuk/obligasi syariah jatuh tempo Dalam hal sovereign sukuk obligor nya adalah pemerintah 2 Investor Investor adalah pemegang sukuk yang memiliki hak atas imbalan marjin dan nilai nominal sukuk sesuai partisipasi masing-masing Investor yang dimaksud disini bisa islamik investor ataupun investor konvensional 3 Special Purpose Vehicle SPV Special Purpose Vehicle SPV adalah badan hukum yang didirikan khusus untuk penerbitan sukuk Special Purpose Vehicle SPV berfungsi : i sebagai penerbit sukuk ii menjadi counterpart pemerintah atau corporate dalam transaksi pengalihan asset iii bertindak sebagai wali amanat trustee untuk mewakili kepentingan investor 4 Trustee bisa Principal Trustee atau Co Trustee Trustee mewakili kepentingan pembeli obligasi trustee melakukan semacam penilaian terhadap perusahaan yang akan menerbitkan obligasi untuk meminimalkan resiko yang akan ditanggung obligor 5 Appraiser Appraiser adalah perusahaan yang melakukan penilaian terhadap aktiva tetap perusahaan yang akan melakukan emisi untuk memperoleh nilai yang dipandang wajar 6 Custody Custody menyelenggarakan kegiatan penitipan bertanggungjawab untuk menyimpan efek milik pemegang rekening dan memenuhi kewajiban lain sesuai kontrak antara kustodian dan pemegang rekening Kustodian bisa berupa Lembaga Penyimpanan dan Penyelesaian Perusahaan Efek dan Bank Umum yang telah memperoleh persetujuan Bapepam 7 Shariah Advisor Penerbitan sukuk obligasi syariah harus terlebih dahulu mendapatkan pernyataan kesesuaian prinsip syariah syariah compliance endorsement untuk meyakinkan investor bahwa sukuk obligasi syariah telah distruktur sesuai syariah Pernyataan syariah compliance tersebut bisa diperoleh dari individu yang diakui secara luas pengetahuannya di bidang syariah atau institusi yang khusus membidangi masalah syariah Untuk penerbitan sukuk obligasi syariah di dalam negeri syariah compliance endorsement dapat dimintakan kepada Dewan Syariah Nasional-MUI Untuk penerbitan sukuk obligasi syariah internasional diperlukan endorsement dari ahli/lembaga syariah yang diakui komunitas syariah internasional misalnya IIFM 8 Arranger atau Manajer Investasi Manajer investasi merupakan pihak yang mengelola dana yang dititpkan investor untuk diinvestasikan di pasar modal 9 Paying Agent Agen biasanya sebuah bank komersial yang diberi wewenang oleh penerbit surat berharga untuk membayar kewajiban pokok dan bunga kepada pemegang surat berharga agen tersebut bertindak sebagai pembayar dan menarik biaya untuk jasa pelayanan G Struktur Obligasi Syariah Menurut Sunarsih 2008 obligasi syariah sebagai sumber pendanaan dan sekaligus investasi memungkinkan berbagai bentuk struktur yang dapat ditawarkan untuk tetap menghindarkan dari riba Berdasarkan pengertian obligasi syariah maka obligasi syariah dapat memberi : 1 Bagi hasil berdasarkan akad Mudharabah Muqaradhah Qiradh atau Musyarakah Karena akad Mudharabah atau Musyarakah adalah kerjasama dengan skema bagi hasil pendapatan atau keuntungan obligasi ini akan memberikan return dengan menggunakan term indicative/expected return karena sifatnya yang floating dan tergantung pada kinerja pendapatan yang dibagihasilkan 2 Margin/Fee berdasarkan akad Murabahah atau Salam atau Istishna’ atau Ijarah Dengan akad Murabahah/Salam/Istishna atau Ijarah sebagai bentuk jual beli dengan skema cost plus basis obligasi jenis ini akan memberikan fixed return Walaupun bentuk akad yang diterapkan dalam obligasi syariah itu banyak namun dilihat dari akad yang digunakan sampai saat ini baru dua jenis obligasi syariah yang sedang berkembang di Indonesia yaitu : obligasi dalam perhitungan penilaian dan pemberian hasil return 1 Obligasi Mudharabah Obligasi Mudharabah adalah skema kerja sama dengan skema bagi hasil pendapatan atau keuntungan obligasi jenis ini akan memberikan return dengan menggunakan term indicative/expected return karena sifatnya yang floating dan tergantung pada kinerja pendapatan yang dibagihasilkan Alasan memilih penerbitan obligasi syariah dengan struktur mudharabah dikarenakan obligasi syariah mudharabah ini telah memiliki pedoman khusus yaitu dengan disahkannya Fatwa No 33/DSN-MUI /IX/2002 Dalam fatwa tersebut dinyatakan bahwa obligasi syariah mudharabah adalah obligasi syariah yang menggunakan akad mudharabah Selain itu pemilihan obligasi mudharabah juga disebabkan karena : a Bentuk pendanaan yang paling sesuai untuk investasi dalam jumlah besar dan jangka yang relatif panjang b Dapat digunakan untuk pendanaan umum general financing c Mudharabah merupakan pencampuran kerja sama antara modal dan jasa kegiatan usaha sehingga menjadikan strukturnya memungkinkan untuk tidak memerlukan jaminan collateral atas asset yang spesifik Hal ini berbeda dengan struktur yang menggunakan dasar akad jual beli yang mensyaratkan jaminan atas asset yang didanai d Kecenderungan regional dan global dari penggunaan struktur mudharabah dan bai bi-tharman ajil menjadi mudharabah dan ijarah Dalam praktik obligasi ijarah dapat dilakukan dengan dua cara : a Investor sebagai penyewa musta‟jir dan emiten sebagai perwakilan agent investor dan pemilik properti sebagai orang yang menyewakan properti mu‟jir Dengan cara ini ada dua jenis kontrak yaitu: kontrak antara investor dengan emiten disebut kontrak wakala agent contract dan kontrak antara emiten dengan pemilik properti disebut kontrak ijarah b Investor menyewakan properti kepada emiten dengan kontrak ijarah dan menerbitkan obligasi syariah ijarah Emiten wajib membayar margin/fee kepada investor dan membayar dana obligasi syariah setelah waktu yang telah ditetapkan pada waktu obligasi jatuh tempo Berikut ini adalah model struktur obligasi syariah ijarah menurut Nafik 2009: Struktur Obligasi Syariah Ijarah diantaranya: 1 Obligator penjual/dealer 2 SPV/KIK 3 Obligator penyewa 4 Investor sukuk holder 5 Proses sukuk untuk membeli aset 6 Hak atas aset 7 Pendapatan sewa / Margin penjualan 8 Proses pembelian / penjualan aset 9 sewa 10 Sewa asset 11 Membeli sukuk 12 Sukuk Ijarah 13 Sertifikat Ijarah H Obligasi Syariah Sebagai Sumber Pendanaan Bagi Perusahaan Setiap perusahaan memerlukan modal untuk melakukan kegiatan operasionalnya Modal ini didapat dari ekuitas atau dari hutang Ekuitas disini adalah modal sendiri yang terdiri atas saham retained earnings dan agio saham Namun dari tiga jenis ekuitas itu yang bisa diperoleh dari masyarakat adalah saham dan agio saham Jika pemilik perusahaan bersedia berbagi kepemilikan dan menginginkan penggalian dana yang tidak terbatas maka perusahaan bisa menjual saham kepada masyarakat melalui pasar modal Sedangkan dana yang berasal dari hutang adalah berupa obligasi Obligasi yang diterbitkan di pasar modal tidak memerlukan jaminan aset karena sudah dijamin oleh penjamin emisi Selanjutnya hutang demikian memiliki jatuh tempo yang panjang karena memang obligasi didesain sebagai hutang jangka panjang Jumlahnya tidaknya terbatas karena dana digali dari masyarakat luas Sepanjang masyarakat masih memiliki dana dan percaya kepada pasar modal maka dana ini akan terus tersedia Widoatmodjo 2009 Upaya perusahaan untuk mendapatkan dan menambah modal ini menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dari kegiatan berinvestasi terutama di pasar modal Sejak tahun 2002 di Bursa Efek Indonesia diperdagangkan instrumen keuangan baru yaitu obligasi syariah Obligasi syariah ini diterbitkan selain untuk menutupi kebutuhan modal kerja juga bisa digunakan untuk pembangunan infrastruktur baik oleh perusahaan ataupun pemerintah Dengan demikian obligasi syariah bisa dimanfaatkan sebagai alternatif seumber pendanaan bagi perusahaan Obligasi syariah sebagai sumber pendanaan bagi perusahaan lebih kompetitif dibandingkan dengan obligasi konvensional hal ini disebabkan k emungkinan memperoleh dari bagi hasil pendapatan lebih tinggi daripada obligasi konvensional 1 Obligasi syariah aman karena digunakan untuk mendanai proyek-proyek yang prospektif 2 Bila terjadi kerugian di luar kontrol investor tetap memperoleh aktiva 3 Terobosan paradigma bukan lagi surat hutang tetapi surat investasi 4 Lebih lanjut Hanafi 2006 menyatakan bahwa obligasi syariah yang merupakan salah satu instrumen dalam pasar modal memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan dibandingkan dengan instrumen yang lain yaitu: a Obligasi syariah meningkatkan likuiditas pemula dan investor dan hal ini akan mengurangi risiko tambahan risk premium pada produk pasar modal yang lain dan memberikan kontribusi pada biaya yang lebih rendah untuk wirausahawan b Obligasi syariah meningkatkan aliran dana terhadap total asset di pasar modal c Obligasi syariah meningkatkan diversifikasi instrumen di pasar modal d Beberapa model dapat di derivasi dari obligasi syariah selama dibutuhkan e Emiten terbatas dibanding dengan instrumen keuangan yang lain f Biaya obligasi syariah cukup tinggi dan memiliki skala yang luas I Soal Latihan Obligasi 1 Suatu obligasi mempunyai coupon rate sebesar 12 membayar couponnya per 6 bulan mempunyai 3 tahun sampai jatuh tempo dan sekarang dijual pada harga Rp 953500 Jika nilai nominalnya adalah 1 juta berapa YTM tahunannya Uraikan jawaban anda a 10 b 12 c 14 Dik: INT 12 X Rp 1000000 INT 120 M Rp 1000000 PV Rp 953500 n 3 tahun Dit: YTM YTM INT M-PV/n x 100 MPV/2 YTM 120000 1000000 – 953500/3 x 100 1000000 953500/2 YTM 135500 x 100 976750 YTM 14 gtgt Jadi besar nya nilai YTM yaitu 14 2 Berapa harga obligasi apabila obligasi tersebut mempunyai nilai par 100000 Obligasi akan jatuh tempo 4 tahun yang akan datang Rate of return yang diminta adalah 8 Kupon rate obligasi adalah 10 per tahun Jawab: Dik: par 100000 n 4 tahun r YTM 8 cpn 10 x 100000 10000 Dit: PV PV cpn cpn cpn cpn par 1r¹ 1r² 1r³ 1r ⁴ PV 10rb 10rb 10rb 10rb100rb 1008¹ 1008² 1008³ 1008 ⁴ PV 925926 857339 793832 8085328 PV 10662425 gtgt Jadi harga obligasi tersebut sebesar Rp 10662425 BAB III SIMPULAN Surat berharga obligasi merupakan instrument utang bagi perusahaan yang hendak memperoleh modal Obligasi adalah surat berharga atau pun sertifikat yang berisi kontrak antara pemberi pinjaman dengan penerima pinjaman Obligasi syariah adalah suatu surat berharga jangka panjang berdasarkan prinsip syariah yang dikeluarkan emiten kepada pemegang obligasi syariah yang mewajibkan emiten untuk membayar pendapatan kepada pemegang obligasi syariah berupa bagi hasil/margin/fee serta membayar kembali dana obligasi pada saat jatuh tempo Karakteristik obligasi diantaranya nilai nominal atau nilai utang pokok harga penerbitan tanggal jatuh tempo kupon tanggal kupon dokumen resmi hak opsi hak pelunasan hak jual tanggal pelaksanaan opsi Risiko yang akan dihadapi dalam obligasi adalah interest-rate risk reinvestment risk call risk default risk inflation risk exchange-rate risk liquidity risk volatility risk Pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam penerbitan obligasi diantaranya Obligor investor special purpose vehicle spv trustee bisa principal trustee atau co trustee appraiser custody shariah advisor arranger atau manajer investasi paying agent Struktur obligasi syariah diantaranya Obligator penjual/dealer SPV/KIK Obligator penyewa Investor sukuk holder Proses sukuk untuk membeli aset Hak atas aset Pendapatan sewa / Margin penjuala n Proses pembelian / penjualan aset sewa Sewa asset Membeli sukuk Sukuk Ijarah Sertifikat Ijarah DAFTAR PUSTAKA Kasmir 2012 Bank dan Lembaga Keuangan Lainnya Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada Mangani Ktut Silvanita 2009 Bank dan Lembaga Keuangan Lain Jakarta: 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