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The Latest: Syrian opposition says no deal over Ghouta town |
24 |
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Soldier killed in Syria identified as 36-year-old from Texas |
19 |
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Pope Easter message urges ‘end to Syria carnage’ |
11 |
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Syria: Fighters begin leaving Ghouta’s last rebel-held town |
10 |
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US UK soldiers killed in Syria blast identified |
9 |
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Pope uses Easter message to pray for peace in Syria |
8 |
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Syrian War Lies and the Greater Israel Project |
8 |
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Pope calls for peace in the world beginning in ‘suffering land of Syria’ this Easter |
6 |
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The Latest: Syrian army says rebels to exit last Ghouta town |
5 |
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Syria declares victory against terror in Eastern Ghouta |
5 |
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Trump puts hold on more than 200 million in Syria recovery funds |
5 |
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Pope urges end to Syria ‘carnage’ in Easter message |
5 |
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US soldier killed in Syria identified |
4 |
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Pope urges end to ‘carnage’ in Syria in Easter message |
4 |
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Pope’s Easter message calls for peace beginning with Syria |
4 |
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Kuwait Court Sentences The Lebanese Man And His Syrian Wife To Death By Hanging Over The Murder Of Filipina Maid Joanna Demafelis Whose Body Was Found In A Freezer |
4 |
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Fraud by Turkish gov’t reported in spending EU’s financial aid for Syrian refugees |
4 |
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Small number of rebels start to leave Syria’s Douma |
4 |
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THẾ GIỚI 24H: SAA chính thức khởi động chiến dịch phía Nam Syria Hàn Quốc ủng hộ Liên Hợp Quốc trừng phạt Triều Tiên |
3 |
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‘Final evacuation deal’ reached for Syria’s Ghouta |
3 |
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Pentagon identifies US soldier killed in Syria during operation against ISIS |
3 |
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Fort Bragg-based soldier dies after roadside bombing in Syria officials say |
3 |
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Tổng thống Donald Trump đang muốn rút quân Mỹ khỏi Syria |
3 |
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Rebel Syrian fighters evacuated from besieged Douma state TV says |
3 |
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Trump đình chỉ viện trợ 200 triệu đô tái thiết Syria |
3 |
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Global Hypocrisy: Syria’s Victory Over Hate is Ignored And “Israel’s” Crimes Against Justice Are Forgiven |
3 |
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Pope urges ‘discontinuance to Syria carnage’ |
3 |
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Last eastern Ghouta rebels poised to surrender: Syrian state media |
3 |
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US should should maintain military presence in Syria -Saudi Crown Prince |
3 |
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Map Update: Military Situation In Area Of Tell Rifaat In Northern Syria |
3 |
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Syrian Rebels Strike Deal With Russia to Evacuate Civilians from Douma |
3 |
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Deal to evacuate hundreds of civilians from Syria’s Douma: monitor |
3 |
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Pope calls for peace in the world beginning in ‘suffering land of Syria’ this Easter |
3 |
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Mỹ như “ếch trong nồi nước nóng” Nga chống lưng Syria trụ vững |
3 |
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Ông Trump đình chỉ viện trợ 200 triệu USD tái thiết Syria |
3 |
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Britain names SAS soldier killed fighting IS in Syria |
3 |
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Erdogan told about the destruction of 4 thousand terrorists in Syria |
2 |
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Report: Trump Freezes Syria Recovery Funds |
2 |
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Warfare in Syria: Tales of Survival and Hope |
2 |
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Soldier killed in Syria identified as Fort Bragg-based master sergeant |
2 |
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Quân đội Syria tuyên bố giải phóng hoàn toàn Đông Ghouta |
2 |
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Syria speak media: Jaish al-Islam consents to pass away Ghouta’s Douma |
2 |
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Saudi Arabia: Mỹ cần duy trì lực lượng tại Syria để kiềm chế Iran |
2 |
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Republican senator Graham warns against Syria troop withdrawal |
2 |
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Update: Free Syrian Army fighters stranded in Damascus’ Douma city evacuated to north Syria |
2 |
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Syrian rebels begin to leave last bastion in eastern Ghouta: State media |
2 |
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Christian denominations in Syria celebrate Easter |
2 |
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Trump says we’re leaving Syria ‘like very soon’ Bad idea |
2 |
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Russia Turkey and Iran discuss Syria conflict |
2 |
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Turkey says France sending troops to Syria would be ‘invasion’ |
2 |
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Syrian army declares victory in Eastern Ghouta |
2 |
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Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ: Pháp đưa thêm quân tới Syria là “xâm lược” |
2 |
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Hàng ngàn tay súng xin hàng lũ lượt rút khỏi Đông Ghouta quân đội Syria lại phát hiện đường hầm lớn |
2 |
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Russia Should Go Beyond Humanitarian Corridors in Syria |
2 |
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Nga-Syria đại thắng nhóm thánh chiến tử thủ Đông Ghouta tung cờ trắng đầu hàng |
2 |
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‘Trump tells advisers he wants US out of Syria’ |
2 |
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Chiến sự Syria vào khúc ngoặt ông Putin tới Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ |
2 |
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Pope urges end to ‘carnage’ in Syria |
2 |
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France to send troops to Syria to support Kurds How will Turkey respond Aren’t they on the same side |
2 |
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Western Strategy in Syria — Partition Sabotage of Sochi and Two New Wars |
2 |
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Hayatın İçinde – In Syria 2017 BRRip 720p 1080p Türkçe Dublaj İndir |
2 |
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Pentagon identifies American soldier killed in Syria explosion |
2 |
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Syria’s army vows to finish off last Ghouta rebels |
2 |
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Body camera shows officer threatened to shoot Alton Sterling within Syrian fighters evacuated from besieged Douma state TV says |
2 |
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Deal reached in rebel held Douma to evacuate wounded to northern Syria |
2 |
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United States Set To Withdraw From Syria And Cut Recovery Funding Too |
2 |
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Rebel fighters and wounded begin evacuating from Syrian town |
2 |
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More Details About Incident In Which Two US-led Coalition Servicemen Were Killed In Syria |
2 |
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2018-03-31 16:49:00 Ուկրաինան խզում է Ռուսաստանի հետ տնտեսական համագործակցությունը 2018-03-31 14:51:00 Արոնյանը կփորձի պաշտպանել տիտղոսը 2018-03-31 13:53:00 Թուրքերը շարունակում են հետապնդել հայ լրագրողին 2018-03-31 12:55:00 Վարորդը տեղում մահացել է ավտովթար՝ Արմավիրում 2018-03-31 11:18:00 Հայ պատգամավորների ԱՄՆ կատարած պատմական այցը կլորիկ գումար է նստել ՀՀ քաղաքացիներիս վրա 2018-03-31 10:39:00 Ալիեւի խնդրանքը Էրդողանին 2018-03-31 10:24:00 ՀՅԴ-ի տունը կռիվ է ընկել 2018-03-31 10:01:00 Գյուղապետերի որս է սկսել 2018-03-30 22:46:00 Ռուսաստանն արտաքսում է 13 ուկրաինացի դիվանագետի 2018-03-30 22:18:00 Դոլարի փոխարժեքը նվազել է եվրոյինը՝ աճել 2018-03-30 22:11:00 Foreign Ministry: France not planning military operations in north Syria 2018-03-30 20:57:00 Արսենալի հավանական մեկնարկային կազմը Սթոք Սիթիի հետ խաղում 2018-03-30 19:09:00 Шварценеггеру провели экстренную операцию на открытом сердце 2018-03-30 19:02:00 Սնկից թունավորման 2 դեպք է արձանագրվել 2018-03-30 16:01:00 Նոր նախագիծ՝ ի աջակցություն ընտանեկան բռնությունից տուժածների 2018-03-30 15:43:00 Քանի դեռ Թուրքիան չի բացել ՀՀ-ի հետ սահմանը ԵՄ անդամ չի դառնա ԵԽ պատգամավոր Պատահարներ 2018-03-31 12:55:00 Վարորդը տեղում մահացել է ավտովթար՝ Արմավիրում 2018-03-30 19:02:00 Սնկից թունավորման 2 դեպք է արձանագրվել For English-speaking 2018-03-30 22:11:00 Foreign Ministry: France not planning military operations in north Syria 2018-03-14 09:07:00 Armenia’s Sargsyan congratulates Pope Francis on 5th anniversary of his papacy Արխիվ S M Tu W Th F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ‹ PrevTodayNext › «Ներողություն եմ խնդրում որ իմ աղջիկը քնած է եղել և չի այրվել հրդեհում» հայտնի աստղը արդարացում է իր ցինիզմը |
2 |
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Totally HOT Syrian Christian girls defend their town from Western backed ISIS |
2 |
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Syrians Feel Vise Tighten in a Holdout Rebel Province |
2 |
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Iran President to Attend Syria Peace Talks in Turkey |
2 |
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Syria ke Halat aur Social Media by Mujahid Shaikh |
2 |
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16 xe tải chở đầy vũ khí hiện đại của QĐ Syria bị IS bắt sống ở Deir Ezzor |
2 |
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Ai hơn ai thiệt khi Mỹ rút khỏi Syria |
2 |
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Saudi Arabia says US key to containing Iranian influence in Syria |
2 |
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Saudi Arabia’s Crown Prince : US must stay in Syria for regional stability |
2 |
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Syrian rebels begin to leave last bastion in Ghouta |
2 |
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Saudi Crown Prince Wants US Troops To Stay In Syria |
2 |
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Why seldom seen Spring shrubs are a garden soldier killed by IS in Syria is named as Sergeant Matt Tonroe |
2 |
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Deal sealed to evacuate Douma rebels to northern Syria: Hezbollah… |
2 |
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Chiến sự Syria: Quân Assad đè bẹp thánh chiến giải phóng hoàn toàn 4 quận sào huyệt ở Đông Ghouta |
2 |
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Quân đội Syria chính thức đè bẹp phiến quân hoàn toàn ở Đông Ghouta |
2 |
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‘Deal struck’ to end ‘hell on earth’ fighting in besieged Syrian enclave of eastern Ghouta |
1 |
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Soldier Killed In Syria Identified As 36-Year-Old From Texas |
1 |
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DEBATE: How Might the Israeli-Iranian Face-Off in Syria Evolve |
1 |
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Syria’s Wrestling team finishes second in Mediterranean Championship in Algeria |
1 |
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Israeli fighter jets have deceived the Russian radar in Syria |
1 |
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Đông Ghouta: Khủng bố quyết không dâng Douma cho quân đội Syria9 |
1 |
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Pope Demands ‘End To Syria Carnage’ In Easter Message |
1 |
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Pope Francis urges end to ‘carnage’ in Syria in Easter message |
1 |
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What About The Syrian Refugees |
1 |
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Pope prays for peace in Syria mid-east |
1 |
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US Soldier Killed In Syria Was From Austin |
1 |
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Fort Bragg soldier killed in Syria attack |
1 |
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Primary school ‘delighted’ after second good Ofsted soldier killed by IS in Syria is named as Sergeant Matt Tonroe |
1 |
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The partition of Syria and the materialization of the Yinon plan |
1 |
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“We’re Entering a New and Dangerous Phase”: US Soldier Killed in Syria |
1 |
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How Israel destroyed Syria’s nuclear reactor |
1 |
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‘Deal struck’ to end fighting in besieged Syrian enclave of eastern Ghouta |
1 |
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Why Turkey Can’t Sell a Syrian Safe Zone |
1 |
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Nga đạt thỏa thuận sơ tán 1300 dân thường khỏi Douma Syria |
1 |
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Nga và quân đội Syria “trấn” cứ địa chiến lược ở Afrin Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ tức tối |
1 |
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Two Coalition Personnel Killed in Syria Including a US Soldier |
1 |
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US Nearly Killed More Russians in Syria Last Week |
1 |
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Turkey warns France: Sending troops to Syria will be ‘invasion’ |
1 |
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Israel now has stealth F-35s Iran Syria have no way to match |
1 |
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Most ISIS Weaponry Was Purchased by US and Saudi Arabia before being Shipped to “Rebels” terrorists in Syria and Iraq |
1 |
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British Soldier killed in Syria named by the MoD |
1 |
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Turkey Threatens Violence Against France for Siding with Syrian Kurds |
1 |
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Why America should remain in Syria |
1 |
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EMR – Syrian Refugee Emergency Appeal |
1 |
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Beside the Syrian Sea |
1 |
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Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ hé lộ được Nga hỗ trợ trong chiến dịch quân sự ở Syria |
1 |
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Donald Trump khóa quỹ tái thiết Syria |
1 |
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Chiến sự Syria: Quân chính phủ tuyên bố giải phóng hoàn toàn Đông Ghouta |
1 |
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Syrian flag raised over Ain Tarma and Joubar after cleansing them of terrorism |
1 |
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Department of Defense identifies soldier killed in Syria |
1 |
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Oct 20 date set for Afghan polls Painful returns for Marawi residents Fears for missing lawyer after trials in Bangladesh Sherpa’s next job could bring Everest summit record Kosovar PM will ‘pay’: Turkish leader Expelled Russian diplomats start returning home Family of US man killed by police joins rally Democrats urge lawmaker to quit over sex harassment by former chief of staff Veteran Russian governor resigns over mall inferno Italy chides France over cross-border chase of suspect World News Quick Take Border forces kill 16 as Gazans protest Sierra Leoneans vote in delayed presidential poll S Korean artists depart for North Thai magazine sued over drawing DR Congo opposition picks leader for long-awaited presidential election British US soldiers killed by roadside explosive in Syria |
1 |
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Good and Bad News on Syria |
1 |
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Syria: Fighters begin leaving Ghouta’s last rebel-held protester must pay over 3K in fines |
1 |
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Germany: Syrian Sets House On Fire 17 Wounded 1 Dead |
1 |
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Chiến sự Syria: Tổng thống Pháp điều quân tới Manbij để hỗ trợ người Kurd |
1 |
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The Novichuckle failed in Syria Where else can the Satanists get WW3 started You guessed The Balkans |
1 |
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Tình hình Syria ngày 1/4: Syria giải phóng Đông Ghouta Mỹ không tái thiết Syria |
1 |
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Tổng thống Trump quyết định cắt khoản viện trợ 200 triệu USD cho Syria |
1 |
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Eva Bartlett Exposes the Lies on Syria 2017 Report |
1 |
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Matrix gaming chaos: the Syria conflict |
1 |
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Rebels Syrian fighters evacuated from besieged Douma says state television |
1 |
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Ghouta – Syria Emergency Campaign |
1 |
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SCRIBE Journal of Descendants of Babylonian Jewry Syrian Jewry Conference |
1 |
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Tillerson: US Will Discourage International Trade With Assad’s Syria |
1 |
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Uber Taxify lock horns as battle shifts to urges end to ‘carnage’ in Syria |
1 |
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Syrian forces: Full victory in eastern Ghouta |
1 |
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Eva Bartlett speaks on North Korea amp Syria FULL 2018 |
1 |
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Lindsey Graham: Trump Pulling Out of Syria ‘Would Be the Single Worst Decision’ He Could Make |
1 |
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Syria’s war: Inside Jordan’s Zaatari refugee camp |
1 |
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Tung bản đồ loạt căn cứ Pháp ở Syria: Thổ nắn gân ông Macron lính Pháp vào tầm ngắm |
1 |
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Tornado jets are to be AXED from the RAF even though the fighter-bombers are still on the front line against ISIS in Syria every day |
1 |
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Trump Tells Advisers He Wants US Out Of Syria – Senior Officials |
1 |
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Syria: Siły rządowe kontrolują 94 proc Wschodniej Guty |
1 |
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Last rebel fighters in Ghouta to surrender make peace with Syrian Govt |
1 |
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British soldier killed by bomb while fighting Isis in Syria is named |
1 |
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Are We Really Getting Out of Syria ‘Very Soon’ |
1 |
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US UK soldiers killed fighting ISIS in Syria identified |
1 |
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Crown Prince’s overture to Syria’s Bashar while in the US |
1 |
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Syria and Venezuela in CrisisWatch |
1 |
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Deadly Fire in Leipzig: Alleged Syrian Arsonist Arrested |
1 |
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Nga rút quân khỏi bắc Aleppo Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ tuyên bố sẽ chiếm thị trấn chiến lược Syria |
1 |
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Deal to evacuate hundreds of civilians from Syria’s Douma |
1 |
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Tình báo Syria xuất sắc: Lập công lớn giúp Chính phủ chiến thắng |
1 |
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Cobra2012- Proxy Galactic War in Syria |
1 |
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Får Syria-kritikk av ortodoks patriark |
1 |
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Syrian Army Gives 48 Hours To Jaysh al-Islam To Accept Evacu |
1 |
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Funding to strengthen projects in Palestine Syria and Sudan |
1 |
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PressTV-Syrian forces liberate Eastern Ghouta towns villages |
1 |
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Could Russia’s S400 SAM Shoot Down the F-22 Stealth Fighter Over Syria |
1 |
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Syria’s Assad isn’t a winner even if he takes |
1 |
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Quân đội Syria tuyên bố thắng lợi hoàn toàn |
1 |
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Syria: Anatomy of a Revolution |
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Bị trấn áp trong đói khát phiến quân chạy về phía quân đội Syria7 |
1 |
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Putin Netanyahu Agree to Discuss Syria and Iran |
1 |
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Syria: Siły rządowe kontrolują już ok 94 procent Wschodniej |
1 |
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Meet the children building a new life for themselves in Winchester after fleeing war-torn Syria |
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Syria: Bí mật bên trong đường hầm lớn của phiến quân ở Đông Ghouta |
1 |
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Syriatel |
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American British soldiers killed in Syria: Pentagon |
1 |
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Turkish Defense Minister warns of a French “invasion” of northern Syria |
1 |
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Pope calls for end to ‘carnage’ in Syria during Easter message |
1 |
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‘Deal agreed’ to get wounded out of rebel-held Douma to northern Syria |
1 |
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The Syrian businessman dubbed the mystery billionaire speaks for the first time about his interest in the Blues from 2015-17 – and makes a series of claims including that the club never gave him an answer to his offer and that a magic hand is at work inside Brunton Park |
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Syrian Arab Bolivarian Republic Niger |
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Thủ lĩnh thánh chiến thề tử thủ Đông Ghouta lính tháo chạy sang đầu hàng quân đội Syria |
1 |
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Syrian army command says it has regained most of Eastern Ghouta |
1 |
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Turkey calls possible deployment of French troops in Syria ‘attempted occupation’ |
1 |
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Quân đội Syria tuyên bố thắng lớn tại Đông Ghouta |
1 |
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Russia prolonging war and making situation in Syria worse British Ambassador tells YJIA |
1 |
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Quân đội Syria tuyên bố chính thức kiểm soát các thành phố của Đông Ghouta |
1 |
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Saudi Crown Prince Calls On US Troops To Remain In Syria |
1 |
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Warehouse Children: Syrian Refugees in Search of Shelter |
1 |
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Syria’s army vows to finish off last rebels outside Damascus |
1 |
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Syria state media: Jaish al-Islam agrees to leave Ghouta’s Douma |
1 |
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PressTV-Kurds deny Afrin agreement with Syrian government |
1 |
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Fem fakta om bakgrunnen for Syria-krigen |
1 |
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Pope urges ‘end to Syria carnage’ |
1 |
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Trump Freezes 200 Million In Syria Recovery Funds Demands Details On Funds Usage |
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Trump freezing Syria funds Claiming Pullout Imminent |
1 |
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ĐIỂM TIN THẾ GIỚI: Quân đội Syria giải phóng Đông Ghouta Nhật cảnh báo Triều Tiên chuẩn bị thử hạt nhân |
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Quân đội Syria tuyên bố chiến thắng lớn tại Đông Ghouta |
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Fort Bragg soldier killed after improvised explosive device detonates in Manbij Syria |
1 |
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‘Hope and dignity’: In his Easter message Pope Francis calls for reconciliation in Israel and an end to Syrian carnage |
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Syria’s partial military withdrawal :Putin |
1 |
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Pháp triển khai quân tại Syria Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ nổi giận vì sợ bị chia phần |
1 |
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Kevin Maguire: Do We Have A Right To Know When Special Forces Are Deployed In Syria |
1 |
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Murder Eyez UPSIDE DOWN فوقاني تحتاني Syrian Hip Hop Unity |
1 |
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Soldier from Austin killed in Syria |
1 |
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US identifies American service member killed by IED in Syria |
1 |
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Latest rebels from East Ghouta ready to surrender: Syrian state media |
1 |
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Trump statement leaves Syria players confused |
1 |
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Sykotix Syria SuperBeats Exclusive |
1 |
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31032018 – Syria: 911 dzień sprzątania świata… |
1 |
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Syria: Siły rządowe kontrolują już ok 94 procent Wschodniej Guty |
1 |
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Soldier killed in Syria identified as Master Sgt Jonathan Dunbar from Texas |
1 |
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Emergency services issue warning after April Fools hoax soldier killed by IS in Syria is named as Sergeant Matt Tonroe |
1 |
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🇸🇾 Who is to blame for the ongoing war in Syria |
1 |
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Syrian rebels begin to leave last bastion in eastern Ghouta: state… |
1 |
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Syria: Quân SAA chính thức khởi động chiến dịch phía Nam |
1 |
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Tesla 123 Bin Aracını Geri warns of ‘action’ in Syria’s Manbij |
1 |
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Mỹ rút khỏi Syria ai được lợi |
1 |
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Pope’s Easter message calls for peace in Syria and Holy Land |
1 |
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Syrian Army Gives 48 Hours To Jaysh al-Islam To Accept Evacuation Agreement Masses Forces Around Duma |
1 |
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Ujumbe Wa Papa Francis Kwa Mataifa Ya Syria Korea Na Gaza |
1 |
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Girl Guides of Squad 22 Syria make and share the change! |
1 |
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Syria: Americans withdraw Iranians stay/Abdulrahman Al-Rashed |
1 |
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Hezbollah: Saudi Arabia offered huge money to Syria’s Assad |
1 |
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Trump’s Unscripted Syria Pullout Promise Has Been Brewing for Weeks |
1 |
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Trump said US will withdraw from Syria “very soon” — no one has a clue what he’s talking about |
1 |
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‘2 Bitter Options’ for Syrians Trapped Between Assad and Extremists |
1 |
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Sanders: US can’t pull out of Syria ‘tomorrow’ |
1 |
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Video: Israel Hizbollah and Iran: Preventing Another War in Syria |
1 |
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Film Syriana dan Wajah Kapitalis Sesungguhnya |
1 |
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Saudi Crown Prince Says US Troops Should Stay in Syria |
1 |
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Trump Freezes Funds for YPG-held Areas in Syria |
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VULGATE: Table of Contents Earlier Latin Translations Jerome’s Bible-Revision Work Jerome’s Bible-Translation Work Jerome’s Translation in Later Times Earlier Latin Translations Latin version of the Bible authorized by the Council of Trent in 1546 as the Bible of the Roman Catholic Church It was the product of the work of Jerome one of the most learned and scholarly of the Church leaders of the early Christian centuries The earliest Latin version of the Scriptures seems to have originated not in Rome but in one of Rome’s provinces in North Africa An Old Latin version of the New Testament was extant in North Africa in the second century CE and it is thought that a translation of the Old Testament into Latin was made in the same century Indeed Tertullian c 160-240 seems to have known a Latin Bible There were at least two early Latin translations one called the African and the other the European These based not on the Hebrew but on the Greek are thought to have been made before the text-work of such scholars as Origen Lucian and Hesychius and hence would be valuable for the discovery of the Greek text with which Origen worked But the remains of these early versions are scanty Jerome did not translate or revise several books found in the Latin Bible and consequently the Old Latin versions were put in their places in the later Latin Bible These Old Latin versions are represented in the books of Esdras Wisdom Ecclesiasticus Baruch and Maccabees and in the additions to Daniel and Esther The Psalter also exists in a revised form and the books of Job and Esther of the Old Latin are found in some ancient manuscripts Only three other fragmentary manuscripts of the Old Testament in Old Latin are now known to be in existence Jerome was born of Christian parents about 340-342 at Stridon in the province of Dalmatia He received a good education and carried on his studies at Rome being especially fascinated by Vergil Terence and Cicero Rhetoric and Greek also claimed part of his attention At Trier in Gaul he took up theological studies for several years In 374 he traveled in the Orient In a severe illness he was so impressed by a dream that he dropped secular studies But his time had not been lost He turned his brilliant mind trained in the best schools of the day to sacred things Like Moses and Paul he retired to a desert that of Chalcis near Antioch where he spent almost five years in profound study of the Scriptures and of himself At this period he sealed a friendship with Pope Damasus who later opened the door to him for the great work of his life In 379 Jerome was ordained presbyter at Antioch Thence he went to Constantinople where he was inspired by the expositions of Gregory Nazianzen In 382 he reached Rome where he lived about three years in close friendship with Damasus Jerome’s Bible-Revision Work For a long time the Church had felt the need of a good uniform Latin Bible Pope Damasus at first asked his learned friend Jerome to prepare a revised Latin version of the New Testament In 383 the Four Gospels appeared in a revised form and at short intervals thereafter the Acts and the remaining books of the New Testament These latter were very slightly altered by Jerome Soon afterward he revised the Old Latin Psalter simply by the use of the Septuagint The name given this revision was the Roman Psalter in distinction from the Psalterium Vetus The former was used in Rome and Italy down to Pius V 1566-72 when it was displaced by the Gallican Psalter so called because first adopted in Gaul another of Jerome’s revisions made about 387 based on many corrections of the Greek text by reference to other Greek versions About theend of 384 Pope Damasus died and Jerome left Rome to travel and study in Bible lands In 389 he settled at Bethlehem assumed charge of a monastery and prosecuted his studies with great zeal He secured a learned Jew to teach him Hebrew for still better work than that he had been doing His revision work had not yet ceased for his Book of Job appeared as the result of the same kind of study as had produced the Gallican Psalter He revised some other books as Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs and Chronicles of which his revisions are lost though their prefaces still exist Jerome’s Bible-Translation Work But Jerome soon recognized the poor and unsatisfactory state of the Greek texts that he was obliged to use This turned his mind and thought to the original Hebrew Friends too urged him to translate certain books from the original text As a resultant of long thought and in answer to many requests Jerome spent fifteen years 390 to 405 on a new translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text He began with the books of Samuel and Kings for which he wrote a remarkable preface really an introduction to the entire Old Testament He next translated the Psalms and then the Prophets and Job In 394-396 he prepared a translation of Esdras and Chronicles After an interval of two years during which he passed through a severe illness he took up his arduous labors and produced translations of Proverbs Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs The Pentateuch followed next and the last canonical books Joshua Judges Ruth and Esther were completed by 404 The Apocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther and Tobit and Judith all translated from the Aramaic completed Jerome’s great task The remainder of the Apocryphal books he left without revision or translation as they were not found in the Hebrew Bible Jerome’s Translation in Later Times Jerome happily has left prefaces to most of his translations and these documents relate how he did his work and how some of the earlier books were received Evidently he was bitterly criticized by some of his former best friends His replies show that he was supersensitive to criticism and often hot-tempered and stormy His irritability and his sharp retorts to his critics rather retarded than aided the reception of his translation But the superiority of the translation gradually won the day for most of his work The Council of Trent in 1546 authorized the Latin Bible which was by that time a strange composite The Old Testament was Jerome’s translation from the Hebrew except the Psalter which was his Gallican revision of the Apocryphal books Judith and Tobit were his translations while the remainder were of the Old Latin version The New Testament was Jerome’s revision of the Old Latin translation These translations and revisions of translations and old original translations constitute the Vulgate See also Jerome Bibliography: Grützmacher Hieronymus: eine Bibliographische Studie vol i Leipsic 1901 S Berger Histoire de la Vulgate Pendant les Premières Siècles du Moyen Age Paris 1893 H J White Codex Amiatinus and Its Birth-place in Studia Biblica et Ecclesiastica vol ii Oxford 1890 E Nestle Ein Jubiläum der Lateinischen Bibel Tübingen 1892 E von Dobschütz Studien zur Textkritik der Vulgata Leipsic 1894 Hastings Dict Bible See fuller bibliography in S Berger’s work mentioned aboveJEROME EUSEBIUS HIERONYMUS SOPHRONIUS: Table of Contents His Teachers His Knowledge of Hebrew Exegesis Use of Noṭariḳon Traditions Church father next to Origen who wrote in Greek the most learned student of the Bible among the Latin ecclesiastical writers and previous to modern times the only Christian scholar able to study the Hebrew Bible in the original The dates of his birth and death are not definitely known but he is generally assumed to have lived from 337 to 420 Born in Stridon Dalmatia he went as a youth to Rome where he attended a school of grammar and rhetoric He then traveled in Gaul and Italy and in 373 went to Antioch where he became the pupil of Apollinaris of Laodicea the representative of the exegetical school of Antioch subsequently however Jerome did not accept the purely historical exegesis of this school but adopted more nearly the typic-allegoric method of Origen From Antioch he went to Chalcis in the Syrian desert where he led the strictly ascetic life of a hermit in atonement for the sins of his youth Here to facilitate his intercourse with the people he was obliged to learn Syriac and this language doubtless aided him later in his Hebrew studies Epistolæ xvii 2 yet comp ib lxxviii and comm on Jer ii 18 Here also he began with great labor to study Hebrew with the aid of a baptized Jew ib cxxv 12 and it may be he of whom he says ib xviii 10 that he was regarded by Jewish scholars as a Chaldean and as a master of the interpretation of Scripture ib cxxv 12 On a second visit to Antioch Jerome was ordained a priest He then went to Constantinople and thence to Rome where he undertook literary work for Pope Damasus beginning at the same time his own Biblical works c 383 He finally settled at Bethlehem in Palestine c 385 founding a monastery there which he directed down to his death This outline of Jerome’s life indicates that he was a master of Latin and Greek learning and by studying furthermore Syriac and Hebrew united in his person the culture of the East and of the West His Teachers It was in Bethlehem that he devoted himself most seriously to Hebrew studies Here he had as teachers several Jews one of whom taught him reading Hebræus autem qui nos in veteris instrumenti lectione erudivit comm on Isa xxii 17 the peculiar pronunciation of Hebrew often found in Jerome’s works was probably therefore derived from this Jew Jerome was not satisfied to study with any one Jew but applied to several choosing always the most learned preface to Hosea: diceremque quid ab Hebræorum magistris vix uno et altero acceperim Epistolæ lxxiii 9 i 443: hæc ab eruditissimis gentis illius didicimus With similar words Jerome is always attempting to inspire confidence in his exegesis but they must not be taken too literally as he was wont to boast of his scholarship However he was doubtless in a position to obtain the opinions of several Jews for he often refers to quidam Hebræorum He even traveled in the province of Palestine with his Jewish friends in order to become better acquainted with the scenes of Biblical history preface to Paralipomena i one of them was his guide preface to Nahum Of only three of his teachers is anything definite known One whom he calls Lyddæus seems to have taught him only translation and exegesis while the traditions midrash were derived from another Jew Lyddæus spoke Greek with which Jerome was conversant comm on Ezek ix 3 on Dan vi 4 Lyddæus in interpreting Ecclesiastes once referred to a midrash which appeared to Jerome absurd comm on Eccl iii 1 Jerome thought him fluent but not always sound this teacher was therefore a haggadist He was occasionally unwilling to explain the text ib v 1 Jerome was frequently not satisfied with his teacher’s exegesis and disputed with him and he often says that he merely read the Scriptures with him comm on Eccl iv 14 v 3 Onomastica Sacra 90 12 Another teacher is called Baranina ie Bar Ḥanina of Tiberias He acquainted Jerome with a mass of Hebrew traditions some of which referred especially to his native place Tiberias He came at night only and sometimes being afraid to come himself he sent a certain Nicodemus Epistolæ lxxxiv 3 i 520 A third teacher who may be called Chaldæus taught Jerome Aramaic which was necessary for the Old Testament passages and the books of the Apocrypha written in that language This teacher of Aramaic was very prominent among the Jews and Jerome who had great difficulty in learning Aramaic was very well satisfied with his instruction prefaces to Tobit and Daniel Jerome continued to study with Jews during the forty years that he lived in Palestine comm on Nahum ii 1 a quibus Judæis non modico tempore eruditus His enemies frequently took him to task for his intercourse with the Jews but he answered: How can loyalty to the Church be impaired merely because the reader is informed of the different ways in which a verse is interpreted by the Jews Contra Rufinum ii 476 This sentence characterizes the Jewish exegesis of that time Jerome’s real intention in studying the Hebrew text is shown in the following sentence: Why should I not be permitted for the purpose of confuting the Jews to use those copies of the Bible which they themselves admit to be genuine Then when the Christians dispute with them they shall have no excuse ib book iii ed Vallarsi ii 554 His Knowledge of Hebrew Jerome’s knowledge of Hebrew is considerable only when compared with that of the other Church Fathers and of the general Christian public of his time His knowledge was really very defective Although he pretends to have complete command of Hebrew and proudly calls himself a trilinguis being conversant with Latin Greek and Hebrew he did not in spite of all his hard work attain to the proficiency of his simple Jewish teachers But he did not commit those errors into which the Christians generally fell as he himself says: The Jews boast of their knowledge of the Law when they remember the several names which we generally pronounce in a corrupt way because they are barbaric and we do not know their etymology And if we happen to make a mistake in the accent the pronunciation of the word as affected by the vowels and in the length of the syllables lengthening short ones and shortening long ones they laugh at our ignorance especially as shown in aspiration and in some letters pronounced with a rasping of the throat comm on Titus iii 9 Jerome not only acquired the peculiar hissing pronunciation of the Jews but he also—so he declares—corrupted his pronunciation of Latin thereby and ruined his fine Latin style by Hebraisms preface to book iii comm on Galatians Epistolæ xxix 7 ed Vallarsi i 143 This statement of Jerome’s is not to be taken very seriously however In his voluminous works Jerome transcribed in Latin letters a mass of Hebrew words giving thereby more or less exact information on the pronunciation of Hebrew then current But although he studied with the Jews his pronunciation of Hebrew can not therefore be unhesitatingly regarded as that of the Jews because he was led by the course of his studies by habit and by ecclesiastical authority to follow the Septuagint in regard to proper names and this version had long before this become Christian Jerome shared the belief of the Hebrews and of most of the Church Fathers that Hebrew was the parent of all the other languages Opera vi 730b He sometimes distinguishes Hebrew from Aramaic preface to Tobit but sometimes appears to call both Syriac In reference to Isa xix 18 comm ad loc comp Epistolæ cviii he speaks also of the Canaanitish language as being closely related to Hebrew and still spoken in five cities of Egypt meaning thereby either Aramaic or Syriac In explaining yemim Gen xxxvi 24 he correctly states in regard to the Punic language that it was related to Hebrew Quæstiones Hebraicæ in Genesin His knowledge of Hebrew appears most clearly in his two important works that on the Hebrew proper names and that on the situation of the places mentioned in the Bible in his extensive commentaries on most of the books of the Old Testament and especially in his chief work the new Latin translation of the Bible from the Hebrew original see Vulgate Through these works he not only became an authority on the Bible during his lifetime but he remained a leading teacher of Christianity in the following ages because down to very recent times no one could go direct to the original text as he had done Jerome’s importance was recognized by the Jewish authors of the Middle Ages and he is frequently cited by David Ḳimḥi also by Abu al-Walid Sefer ha-Shorashim sv and Abraham ibn Ezra on Gen xxxvii 35 Samuel b Meïr on Ex xx 13 Naḥmanides on Gen xli 45 Joseph Albo iii 25 and the polemic Isaac Troki in Ḥizzuḳ Emunah Jerome is also important because he could consult works which have since disappeared as for example Origen’s Hexapla he says that he had seen a copy of the Hebrew Ben Sira but he seems not to have used it he had Aramaic copies of the Apocryphal books Judith and Tobit and the so-called Hebrew Gospel which was written in Hebrew script in the Aramaic language he translated into Greek and Latin Contra Pelagianos iii 2 De Viris Illustribus ch ii comm on Matt xii 13 Exegesis Jerome’s exegesis is Jewish in spirit reflecting the methods of the Palestinian haggadists He expressly states in certain cases that he adopts the Jewish opinion especially when he controverts Christian opponents and errors comm on Joel iv 11: nobis autem Hebræorum opinionem sequentibus he reproduces the Jewish exegesis both in letter comm on Amos v 18-19 and in substance παραφραστικῶς comm on Dan ix 24 Hence he presents Jewish exegesis from the purely Jewish point of view Even the language of the Haggadah appears in his commentaries eg where the explanation is given in the form of question and answer comm on Dan ii 12: quærunt Hebræi or when he says in explaining This it is that is said Hoc est quod dicitur comp or when several opinions are cited on the same subject alii Judæorum or when a disputation is added thereto Epistola xix ad Hedibiam i 55 He even uses technical phrases such as The wise men teach Epistolæ cxxi or One may read comm on Nahum iii 8 This kind of haggadic exegesis which is merely intended to introduce a homiletic remark leads Jerome to accuse the Jews unjustly of being arbitrary in their interpretation of the Bible text But he did not believe that the Jews corrupted the text as Christians frequently accused them of doing While at Rome he obtained from a Jew a synagogue-roll Epistolæ xxxvi 1 because he considered the Hebrew text as the only correct one as the Hebraica veritas which from this time on he regarded as authoritative in all exegetical disputes Jerome hereby laid down the law for Bible exegesis Of course he recognized also some of the faults of Jewish exegesis as for example the forced combination of unconnected verses comm on Isa xliv 15: stulta contentione he sometimes regards his teacher’s interpretation to be arbitrary and opposes to it his own ib xlix 1 Contrary to the haggadic interpretation of the Jews he correctly notices a difference between Hananeel Jer xxxi 38 see comm ad loc and Hanameel ib xxxii 7 Jerome rarely employs simple historical exegesis but like all his contemporaries wanders in the mazes of symbolic allegoric and even mystic exegesis In his commentary on Joel i 4 he adopts the Jewish interpretation according to which the four kinds of locusts mean the four empires Zech iv 2 in which the lamp means the Law its flame the Messiah and its seven branches the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit he interprets entirely mystically Use of Noṭariḳon In his commentary on Eccl i 9 he even teaches the preexistence of all beings including man He frequently uses the NoṬariḳon eg in reference to Zerubbabel comm on Hag i 1 or to Abishag Epistolæ lii i 210 Jerome’s exegesis came in some respects like a revelation to the Christian world and cleared up difficulties in reading the Bible eg his explanation of the Hebrew alphabet Epistola xxx ad Paulam i 144 or that of the ten names of God Epistola xxv ad Marcellam i 128 It must always be remembered that in many portions of his allegorical exegesis Jerome is entirely in agreement with Hellenistic methods for instance in the explanation of the four colors in the sanctuary of the desert Epistola lxiv ad Fabiolam i 364 comp Philo De Monarchia § 2 Josephus B J v 4 § 4 idem Ant iii 7 § 7 Jerome’s commentaries are of small value for Old Testament criticism on account of the inclination to allegorize which leads him to a free treatment of the text as well as on account of his polemics against Judaism comp Jew Encyc iv 81 sv Church Fathers Traditions Jerome’s works are especially important for Judaism because of the numerous Jewish traditions found in them particularly in his work Quæstiones Hebraicæ in Genesin Jerome designates by the general name tradition all supplementary and edifying stories found in the Midrash and relating to the personages and events of the Bible these stories may fitly be designated as historic haggadah Here also Jerome affirms that he faithfully reproduces what the Jews have told him comm on Amos iv 16: hoc Hebræi autumant et sicut nobis ab ipsis traditum est nostris fideliter exposuimus He designates the Jewish legend of Isaiah’s martyrdom as an authentic tradition comm on Isa lvii 1: apud cos certissima traditio while he doubts the story of Jeremiah’s crucifixion because there is no reference to it in Scripture comm on Jer xi 18 Jerome often remarks that a certain story is not found in Scripture but only in tradition comm on Isa xxii 15 and that these traditions originated with the magistri ie the Rabbis comm on Ezek xlv 10 that these fables are incorporated into the text on the strength of one word comm on Dan vi 4 and that many authors are cited to confirm this tradition All these remarks exactly characterize the nature of the Haggadah Jerome apparently likes these traditions though they sometimes displease him and then he contemptuously designates them as fabulæ or Jewish fables ridiculous fables comm on Ezek xxv 8 ridiculous things on Eccl iii 1 or cunning inventions on Zech v 7 Jerome’s opinion of these traditions is immaterial at the present time The important point is that he quotes them for thereby the well-known traditions of the Midrash are obtained in Latin form and in this form they are sometimes more concise and comprehensible—in any case they are more interesting Moreover many traditions that appear from the sources in which they are found to be of a late date are thus proved to be of earlier origin Jerome also recounts traditions that are no longer found in canonical Jewish sources as well as some that have been preserved in the Jewish and Christian Apocrypha It is furthermore interesting to note that Jerome had read some of these traditions hence they had been committed to writing in his time Although other Church Fathers quote Jewish traditions none equal Jerome in the number and faithfulness of their quotations This Midrash treasure has unfortunately not yet been fully examined scholars have only recently begun to investigate this field Nor have Jerome’s works been properly studied as yet in reference to the valuable material they contain on the political status of the Jews of Palestine their social life their organization their religiousviews their Messianic hopes and their relations to Christians Jerome was no friend to the Jews although he owed them much he often rebukes them for their errors reproaches them for being stiff-necked and inimical to the Christians controverts their views in the strongest terms curses and reviles them takes pleasure in their misfortune and even uses against them both the books that he has cunningly obtained from them and the knowledge he has derived therefrom Thus Jews and Christians agree that he is eminent only for his scholarship and not for his character See Church Fathers Bibliography: O Zöckler Hieronymus Sein Leben und Sein Wirken Gotha 1865 A Thierry St Jérôme Paris 1867 1875 Grützmacher Hieronymus part i Leipsic 1901 Nowack Die Bedeutung des Hieronymus für die A T Textkritik 1875 pp 6-10 S Krauss in Magyar Zsidó Szémle 1890 vii passim idem in J Q R vi 225-261 M Rahmer Die Hebräischen Traditionen in den Werken des Hieronymus i Breslau 1861 ii Berlin 1898 idem in Ben Chananja vii idem in Monatsschrift 1865 1866 1867 1868 idem in Grätz Jubelschrift Siegfried Die Aussprache des Hebräischen bei Hieronymus in Stade’s Zeitschrift iv 34-82 Spanier Exegetische Beiträge zu Hieronymus Bern 1897 W Bacher Eine Angebliche Lücke im Hebräischen Wissen des Hieronymus in Stade’s Zeitschrift xxii 114-116 |
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