Index of references to Syria in Global Information Space with daily updates

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New headings with Syria from Top 1,000,000 websites extracted on 2018-11-02

# Headings H1-H6 Count
Monitor: Government shelling in north Syria kills at least 8 6
Why Putin Wants Syria 3
Armeena Khan visits Jordan to encourage Syrian exiles 3
Former US-Backed Militants In Syria Joining Hezbollah: WSJ 3
Không phải Nga hay Mỹ kẻ thắng thực sự ở Syria chính là Hezbollah 3
US UK and France confirm allegiance to ISIS in Syria start bombing campaign based on lies 3
Syria is not exceptional: interview with Joseph Daher 3
Japanese reporter freed in Syria apologizes for trouble 3
Seven Years of Killing Fields in Syria: An Imbroglio of Proxy Wars 3
United States calls on Al-Qaeda to stage false flag attack in Syria 3
Iranian Concerns Grow Over Russia’s Syrian Policies 3
Japan reporter freed in Syria says he made ‘silly’ mistake 3
Iraq sends up to 30000 fighters to secure Syrian border from ISIS 3
The truth about the chemical weapons attack in Syria 2
Tornado jets demolish Islamic State observation post in eastern Syria 2
Map of military influence in Syria 01-11-2018 2
CLP Justin Park helps Syrian refugees in Montreal 2
Nga công bố tin sốc về PK Syria: Sau sự việc tày đình Israel lạnh gáy không dám ho he 2
Terrorists May Have Benefited From Millions Worth Of US Aid For Iraq amp Syria – Report 2
The New Arab Approach to the Syrian Regime 2
FAITH amp FREEDOM QARYATAYN Syria excerpt from Faith and Freedom Not final edit 2
The Syrian Refugee Crisis and Impact Investing 2
Report: Syrian armed factions abandon Washington and jump into hostile camps 2
Joint US-Turkish patrols finally begin in tense northern Syria area 2
9th World Syriac Conference Old Seminary Choir 2
It Was Hell’ Freed Japanese Journalist Narrates Syria Kidnap Ordeal 2
Shelling kills eight in de-escalation zone around Syria’s Idlib 2
While I Was Waiting: The Human Side Of The Syrian Conflict OzAsia Festival Review 2
Syria: Iran rót tiền cho quân nổi dậy thân Mỹ quay súng tấn công Israel 2
US accuses Russia of blocking delivery of aid to long-suffering Syrian refugee camp 2
Tiêm kích Israel mất tích ở Syria nhưng S-300 và S-400 có mối đe dọa rất nguy hiểm 2
Syria’s reconstruction: No willing payers in sight 2
SYRIA: Premier League 2
Flying under the radar Syria’s ‘Special Purpose’ Mi-17s 1
Video: Phi công Nga khoe chiến tích đánh chặn 3 máy bay Mỹ – Pháp ở Syria 1
US Airstrikes Kill 32 Civilians in Eastern Syria 1
Syrian Electronic Army 1
Iraq sends up to 30000 fighters to secure Syrian border from 1
Nato war criminals: hands off Syria! 1
1 Ezra Levant on the using and cost of housing all the Syrian Refugees on Canadian Military bases in Canada Ezra bases 1
STATE PROPAGANDA IN SYRIA: FROM WAR CRIMES TO PIPELINES ISCI Report 1
Syria phải nhập khẩu 90 xăng dầu 1
Hundreds of US Military Vehicles Enter Syria from Iraq 1
‘Religious freedoms political restrictions’: Amid dispute over local education policy Assyrian writer reflects on minority rights in Syria’s northeast 1
Will the Istanbul Summit Offer Hope for Syria 1
Sốc: IS ở Syria nhận trực tiếp vũ khí và đạn dược từ liên quân do Mỹ dẫn đầu 1
Syria Situation Report: April 18-May 1 2018 1
Syria Situation Report: September 13-September 26 2018 1
Syria Plans to Join Paris Climate Agreement Isolating US 1
Damascus Syria 1
‘Silly Mistake’: Freed Japanese Journalist Apologizes to Government for Getting Kidnapped in Syria 1
Stranded in Syrian desert Rukban’s displaced wait on stall Oct 30 2018 1
Syria Turning Points: An Ongoing Roundtable 1
SYRIAN REFUGEE CRISIS 1
Lamentation for Syrian Refugees By Michael Takeo Magruder 1
Syrian-American rapper Mona Haydar breaks down her new Barbarican EP Track By Track: Stream 1
Orca Book Publishers is donating funds raised from the sale of this book to Syrian refugees Fundraising 1
SYRIAN WAR REPORT – NOVEMBER 2 2018: SYRIAN ARMY DISCOVERS ISIS DEPOT WITH US-SUPPLIED AMMUNITION 1
Syria in a Week 15 October 2018 1
French MAS Rifles in Syria The Syrian Civil War 1
No war with Syria! No war with Russia! Anti-war demo 6pm Friday 13 April Downing St 1
Syria and the Region 1
Syrian Geeks كل ما هو جديد بعالم التقنية 1
Our Syria Book 1
Syria: Phát hiện ngôi mộ chứa 1500 thi thể tại TP Raqqah 1
This website is intended to pay homage to Syriac heritage 1
Syria Situation Report: April 4-April 17 2018 1
Pakistan Palau Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa San Marino Sao Tome amp Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Korea South Sudan Spain Sri Lanka State of Palestine Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syria Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Timor-Leste Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu United Kingdom United State of America Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe 1
‘Embrace of the nation’: How the Syrian government seeks to Oct 25 2018 1
Former CIA Officer to Sputnik: US Paying Lip-Service to Fighting Terror in Syria 1
Syrian War Report – November 2 2018: Syrian Army Discovers ISIS Depot With US-supplied Ammunition 1
A boarding school used as temporary refugee camp in Suruc / Sanliurfa near the Kobane border of Syria 1
Russia missile sale to Syria is ‘significant escalation’: US’ Bolton 1
Armeena Rana Khan visits Jordan personally to help Syrian Refugees 1
Norwegian diplomat Geir O Pedersen to be new UN Special Envoy for Syria 1
i am syria 1
Losing Syria’s Youngest Generation 1
Lena Dunham under fire for writing movie about stranded Syrian refugee 1
Syrian Arab Republic – mobitec 1
Japanese journalist kidnapped in Syria defends going to warzone 1
Arrival of an additional 2100 Syrian refugees into Europe 1
Welcome to SyrianSoft Website 1
Syria amp Asia Minor Conder Modern Traveller 1830 г 1
Militants Preparing to Stage False Flag Chemical Attack in Syria Russia Warns 1
Syrian human-rights group accuses Russia of targeting civilians 1
Syria War Has Little To Do With Manmade Climate Change Recent Publications Show 1
Saudi slutter å finansiere terror i Syria ettersom den arabiske liga forbereder seg på å gjenoppta båndene med Syria men tiden er ennå ikke moden til å gjenerobre Idlib 1
Prince of Syria by Khalil Maamoon™ 1
‘Who let you live in this home’ In Afrin Turkish-backed rebels seize homes evict displaced Syrians 1
Why Trump Bombed Syria 1
Japan journo admits silly mistake in following strangers into Syria 1
Russia Isolated US and Britain Excluded From Syria Summit 1
Khalil E Jahshan speaks to Al-Monitor on Syria 1
Israel to destroy Syria’s S-300 defence system US general says 1
Syria Situation Report: February 21-March 6 2018 1
Russia Warns Again of False Flag Chemical Attack in Syria’s Idlib 1
This Syrian refugee opened a small falafel shop in Tennessee It was just named the ‘nicest place in America’ 1
Giải mã cuộc tấn công tay ba vào Syria 1
NATO Is At War With NATO In Northern Syria 1
The New US Strategy in Syria Is Bound to Fail Trump Wants 1
‘Embrace of the nation’: How the Syrian government seeks to control obstruct refugee Stories 1
We Crossed a Bridge and It Trembled: Voices From Syria 1
Syrian settlement: Leaders of Russia Germany France Turkey arrive in Istanbul for summit 1
BRITISH-ZIO-EMPIRE PLOT TO DEMONIZE RUSSIA READY FOR BRITISH CHEMICAL ATTACK ON SYRIA 1
Russian cockpit VIDEO shows intercept of French fighter jet over Syria 1
EU Imposes New Sanctions on Syrian Scientists and Officials 1
Israel closes field hospital for terrorists as Syrian army gains ground in Golan 1
US-supported Syria hostile slaughters 35 IS contenders 1
US President Donald Trump has approved military strikes in Syria in retaliation for the alleged chem… 1
Fellow Syrian captive says Japan journalist should not be criticized 1
World Kobanê Day celebrated in Nort Syria 1
Israel to test Syria S300 after refusing to give Moscow heads up of new 1
Five more Syrian civilians killed in fresh US airstrike in Deir-ez-Zor 1
Chiến sự Syria: Phiến quân trả đũa quân chính phủ Idlib chứng kiến ngày đẫm máu nhất 1
Syria: Cheap Flights from Syria top 1
Syria Situation Report: October 11-October 24 2018 1
Japan reporter freed in Syria apologises 1
Syria Situation Report: June 29-July 12 2018 1
Syriac Peshitta Volume 1
Hide and Peek Syria’s BRDM-2s 1
Syria Mailing Lists Database Pack 1
Housing Security and Urban Humanitarianism in the Syria Crisis 1
Russia to send S-300 missile system as upgrade for Syrian air defences 1
Maya Youssef – Syrian Dreams 1
Get Ready For A False Flag Attack and Tactical Nuclear Weapons Used In Syria 1
Chicago: Muslim refugee pleads guilty aiding Islamic terror organization in Syria 1
Paxton purchases North Carolina newspaper — A2Man smiles says ‘Let’s rock’ before execution — A2Federal judge won’t halt attack ads against justice — A3Court strikes down competency law for executions — A3Mexican agents nibble at edges of caravans — A5US Turkey begin patrols around Syria — A5Turkey demands Saudi cooperation in probe — A5Pilot admits being almost 10 times over alcohol limit — A5Two men sought in forgery case — A6Trump pledges asylum crackdown — A7Jonesboro to host cricket championship — A7Man accused of drugs gun possession — A7Trump Oprah lead surrogate campaigners — A8Border mission doesn’t fit Mattis’ focus — A8Synagogue suspect pleads not guilty — A8Congressman denies ties to supremacists — A9Remains identified of missing Korean War soldier — A9Book features ‘lesser-known’ stories of Ark — A10Daisy Dog series author to sign books Saturday — A102 dead as storms tear through Gulf Coast — A11Moon: Korean leaders to meet again ‘soon’ — A12Yemen welcomes call for truce — A12Cook shoots 71 in Las Vegas — B249ers trounce Raiders 34-3 — B3UCF holds off Temple in 52-40 win — B3Rebound stretches to 3rd day — B4Google employees stage global walkout — B4HealthCaregov running after a slow start — B4Bank of England warns of shock if Brexit talks fail — B4Election role of morning anchors shows change — B6Mac Miller benefit features Chance SZA Mayer — B6 1
Syria Situation Report: January 24-February 7 2018 1
Pakistan poses three times more terror risk to humanity than Syria: report 1
Beware Russia’s Endgame in Syria It’s not just about helping Assad it’s about disrupting American interests 1
Israel sợ hãi khi thấy S-300 trong đại chiến Syria 1
The Outcome of Riyadh Conference II and Its Impact on the Syrian Scene 1
Syria Situation Report: August 28-September 12 2018 1
1000 Samen Asclepias syriaca Papageienpflanze 1
10 Samen Asclepias syriaca Papageienpflanze 1
Syrian Refugees Working in Agriculture in Turkey 1
Does Lena Dunham know more about Syrian refugees than a Syrian writer 1
Syria’s Kurds and the Syrian Civil War 1
St Paul’s Syrian students visit Kilkenny Castle 1
New Details Of Drone Attacks In Syria Exposed 1
Free Press Union condemns attacks on Northern Syria 1
US is supporting the most barbaric terrorists in Syria 1
Asclepias syriaca – Common Milkweed 1
Iraqi Refugees in Syria Refuse to Return Home 1
RAND Corporation’s project Peace Plan for Syria 1
Imad K Harb: Russian-US plans to repatriate Syrians are futile while Assad remains 1
Germany: AfD Protest Clashes with Antifa After Syrian Gang-Rape of German Girl 1
Van Schaack: Transitional Justice Pre-Transition: The International Community’s Efforts in Syria 1
I Am Syria 1
US jets strike Syrian town with banned white phosphorus bombs – Russian Defense Ministry 1
English Club for the Syrian Community 1
Who Are those Syrian Refugees Really 1
Help Syrian Children Through Mining 1
2 Then there came some that told Jehoshaphat saying There cometh a great multitude against thee from beyond the sea on this side Syria and behold they be in Hazazontamar which is Engedi 1
Over a dozen US drones attacked Syrian airbase being used by Russia 1
Lebanon Syria Palestine: Triangle Of Triumph 1
Syria 4 Soft Com 1
Syria Situation Report: August 16-August 28 2018 1
Syria Situation Report: June 12-June 28 2018 1
Turkey amp US begin Joint Patrols in Northern Syria 1
Militants Plan New Chemical Provocations in Syria’s Idlib – Russian Military 1
Stranded in Syrian desert Rukban’s displaced wait on stalled UN aid delivery 1
Allstars Gourmet to donate all profits to Syria this Sunday 1
Syria chwali Polskę za stanowisko w sprawie uchodźców 1
The Third Meeting Of Dialogue Between Islamists and Seculars in Syria Workshop 1
Recent US pretends to support the independence of Syria and Iraq 1
Tin thế giới 2/11: Máy bay Nga lập kỳ tích Israel im ắng ở Syria 1
TU Berlin Campus El Gouna Scholarship Program for Syrian RefugeesInternational Scolarships 1
Syria: US takes charge of forming armed groups recruited in Homs 1
I Was Housed Fed Loved and Saved in Syria By the Refugees 1
Thảm kịch IL-20 Nga và “trò chơi vương quyền” tại Syria 1
Now online: Syrian revolutionary socialist Ghayath Naisse interviewed on the brutalisation of Syria the goals of those intervening and the prospects for socialists in the region 1
Former US Allies in Syria Now Supporting Iran or Turkey 1
In Syrian prisons Mother’s Day a chance for more torture 1
A Map of Attacks on Health Care in Syria 1
Syria – Premier League 1
Sign up for the Salon Syria Newsletter 1
Orchestra of Syrian Expats Alive and Well in Europe 1
Quân đội Syria đánh khủng bố tan tác ở vùng đệm Idlib 1
Syrian Accountability 1
War in Syria Trump Becomes Obama 1
These 5 Facts Explain American Hold in Syria 1
US Turkey begin joint patrols around northern Syrian town of Manbij 1
Isaac the Syrian: Faith requires a serene and simple mind Sunday Oct 9 2016 1
Syria in a Week 22 October 2018 1
‘The head is Turkish the body Syrian’: Expanding Turkish i Oct 24 2018 1
Syria in the Eyes of an Expatriate 1
Mr Gay Syria 1
UHM COMMENTS ON TRUMP FALLING FOR NEW VENICE TRICKERY WHILST ATTACKING SYRIA 1
Soobin Hoàng Sơn là cái tên được tìm kiếm nhiều sau trận VN-Syria 1
Nga cảnh báo S-300 ở Syria sẽ trừng trị những cái đầu nóng 1
Norway’s Ambassador to China to be UN Syria Envoy 1
Syria Situation Report: February 7-February 21 2018 1
President Trump Deploys Kendall Jenner To Ease Syrian Tensions 1
How does Syrian Orthodox church celebrate Their New Year 1
Coalition working to ‘de-escalate’ tensions between Turkey Syrian Kurds 1
VULGATE: Table of Contents Earlier Latin Translations Jerome’s Bible-Revision Work Jerome’s Bible-Translation Work Jerome’s Translation in Later Times Earlier Latin Translations Latin version of the Bible authorized by the Council of Trent in 1546 as the Bible of the Roman Catholic Church It was the product of the work of Jerome one of the most learned and scholarly of the Church leaders of the early Christian centuries The earliest Latin version of the Scriptures seems to have originated not in Rome but in one of Rome’s provinces in North Africa An Old Latin version of the New Testament was extant in North Africa in the second century CE and it is thought that a translation of the Old Testament into Latin was made in the same century Indeed Tertullian c 160-240 seems to have known a Latin Bible There were at least two early Latin translations one called the African and the other the European These based not on the Hebrew but on the Greek are thought to have been made before the text-work of such scholars as Origen Lucian and Hesychius and hence would be valuable for the discovery of the Greek text with which Origen worked But the remains of these early versions are scanty Jerome did not translate or revise several books found in the Latin Bible and consequently the Old Latin versions were put in their places in the later Latin Bible These Old Latin versions are represented in the books of Esdras Wisdom Ecclesiasticus Baruch and Maccabees and in the additions to Daniel and Esther The Psalter also exists in a revised form and the books of Job and Esther of the Old Latin are found in some ancient manuscripts Only three other fragmentary manuscripts of the Old Testament in Old Latin are now known to be in existence Jerome was born of Christian parents about 340-342 at Stridon in the province of Dalmatia He received a good education and carried on his studies at Rome being especially fascinated by Vergil Terence and Cicero Rhetoric and Greek also claimed part of his attention At Trier in Gaul he took up theological studies for several years In 374 he traveled in the Orient In a severe illness he was so impressed by a dream that he dropped secular studies But his time had not been lost He turned his brilliant mind trained in the best schools of the day to sacred things Like Moses and Paul he retired to a desert that of Chalcis near Antioch where he spent almost five years in profound study of the Scriptures and of himself At this period he sealed a friendship with Pope Damasus who later opened the door to him for the great work of his life In 379 Jerome was ordained presbyter at Antioch Thence he went to Constantinople where he was inspired by the expositions of Gregory Nazianzen In 382 he reached Rome where he lived about three years in close friendship with Damasus Jerome’s Bible-Revision Work For a long time the Church had felt the need of a good uniform Latin Bible Pope Damasus at first asked his learned friend Jerome to prepare a revised Latin version of the New Testament In 383 the Four Gospels appeared in a revised form and at short intervals thereafter the Acts and the remaining books of the New Testament These latter were very slightly altered by Jerome Soon afterward he revised the Old Latin Psalter simply by the use of the Septuagint The name given this revision was the Roman Psalter in distinction from the Psalterium Vetus The former was used in Rome and Italy down to Pius V 1566-72 when it was displaced by the Gallican Psalter so called because first adopted in Gaul another of Jerome’s revisions made about 387 based on many corrections of the Greek text by reference to other Greek versions About theend of 384 Pope Damasus died and Jerome left Rome to travel and study in Bible lands In 389 he settled at Bethlehem assumed charge of a monastery and prosecuted his studies with great zeal He secured a learned Jew to teach him Hebrew for still better work than that he had been doing His revision work had not yet ceased for his Book of Job appeared as the result of the same kind of study as had produced the Gallican Psalter He revised some other books as Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs and Chronicles of which his revisions are lost though their prefaces still exist Jerome’s Bible-Translation Work But Jerome soon recognized the poor and unsatisfactory state of the Greek texts that he was obliged to use This turned his mind and thought to the original Hebrew Friends too urged him to translate certain books from the original text As a resultant of long thought and in answer to many requests Jerome spent fifteen years 390 to 405 on a new translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text He began with the books of Samuel and Kings for which he wrote a remarkable preface really an introduction to the entire Old Testament He next translated the Psalms and then the Prophets and Job In 394-396 he prepared a translation of Esdras and Chronicles After an interval of two years during which he passed through a severe illness he took up his arduous labors and produced translations of Proverbs Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs The Pentateuch followed next and the last canonical books Joshua Judges Ruth and Esther were completed by 404 The Apocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther and Tobit and Judith all translated from the Aramaic completed Jerome’s great task The remainder of the Apocryphal books he left without revision or translation as they were not found in the Hebrew Bible Jerome’s Translation in Later Times Jerome happily has left prefaces to most of his translations and these documents relate how he did his work and how some of the earlier books were received Evidently he was bitterly criticized by some of his former best friends His replies show that he was supersensitive to criticism and often hot-tempered and stormy His irritability and his sharp retorts to his critics rather retarded than aided the reception of his translation But the superiority of the translation gradually won the day for most of his work The Council of Trent in 1546 authorized the Latin Bible which was by that time a strange composite The Old Testament was Jerome’s translation from the Hebrew except the Psalter which was his Gallican revision of the Apocryphal books Judith and Tobit were his translations while the remainder were of the Old Latin version The New Testament was Jerome’s revision of the Old Latin translation These translations and revisions of translations and old original translations constitute the Vulgate See also Jerome Bibliography: Grützmacher Hieronymus: eine Bibliographische Studie vol i Leipsic 1901 S Berger Histoire de la Vulgate Pendant les Premières Siècles du Moyen Age Paris 1893 H J White Codex Amiatinus and Its Birth-place in Studia Biblica et Ecclesiastica vol ii Oxford 1890 E Nestle Ein Jubiläum der Lateinischen Bibel Tübingen 1892 E von Dobschütz Studien zur Textkritik der Vulgata Leipsic 1894 Hastings Dict Bible See fuller bibliography in S Berger’s work mentioned aboveJEROME EUSEBIUS HIERONYMUS SOPHRONIUS: Table of Contents His Teachers His Knowledge of Hebrew Exegesis Use of Noṭariḳon Traditions Church father next to Origen who wrote in Greek the most learned student of the Bible among the Latin ecclesiastical writers and previous to modern times the only Christian scholar able to study the Hebrew Bible in the original The dates of his birth and death are not definitely known but he is generally assumed to have lived from 337 to 420 Born in Stridon Dalmatia he went as a youth to Rome where he attended a school of grammar and rhetoric He then traveled in Gaul and Italy and in 373 went to Antioch where he became the pupil of Apollinaris of Laodicea the representative of the exegetical school of Antioch subsequently however Jerome did not accept the purely historical exegesis of this school but adopted more nearly the typic-allegoric method of Origen From Antioch he went to Chalcis in the Syrian desert where he led the strictly ascetic life of a hermit in atonement for the sins of his youth Here to facilitate his intercourse with the people he was obliged to learn Syriac and this language doubtless aided him later in his Hebrew studies Epistolæ xvii 2 yet comp ib lxxviii and comm on Jer ii 18 Here also he began with great labor to study Hebrew with the aid of a baptized Jew ib cxxv 12 and it may be he of whom he says ib xviii 10 that he was regarded by Jewish scholars as a Chaldean and as a master of the interpretation of Scripture ib cxxv 12 On a second visit to Antioch Jerome was ordained a priest He then went to Constantinople and thence to Rome where he undertook literary work for Pope Damasus beginning at the same time his own Biblical works c 383 He finally settled at Bethlehem in Palestine c 385 founding a monastery there which he directed down to his death This outline of Jerome’s life indicates that he was a master of Latin and Greek learning and by studying furthermore Syriac and Hebrew united in his person the culture of the East and of the West His Teachers It was in Bethlehem that he devoted himself most seriously to Hebrew studies Here he had as teachers several Jews one of whom taught him reading Hebræus autem qui nos in veteris instrumenti lectione erudivit comm on Isa xxii 17 the peculiar pronunciation of Hebrew often found in Jerome’s works was probably therefore derived from this Jew Jerome was not satisfied to study with any one Jew but applied to several choosing always the most learned preface to Hosea: diceremque quid ab Hebræorum magistris vix uno et altero acceperim Epistolæ lxxiii 9 i 443: hæc ab eruditissimis gentis illius didicimus With similar words Jerome is always attempting to inspire confidence in his exegesis but they must not be taken too literally as he was wont to boast of his scholarship However he was doubtless in a position to obtain the opinions of several Jews for he often refers to quidam Hebræorum He even traveled in the province of Palestine with his Jewish friends in order to become better acquainted with the scenes of Biblical history preface to Paralipomena i one of them was his guide preface to Nahum Of only three of his teachers is anything definite known One whom he calls Lyddæus seems to have taught him only translation and exegesis while the traditions midrash were derived from another Jew Lyddæus spoke Greek with which Jerome was conversant comm on Ezek ix 3 on Dan vi 4 Lyddæus in interpreting Ecclesiastes once referred to a midrash which appeared to Jerome absurd comm on Eccl iii 1 Jerome thought him fluent but not always sound this teacher was therefore a haggadist He was occasionally unwilling to explain the text ib v 1 Jerome was frequently not satisfied with his teacher’s exegesis and disputed with him and he often says that he merely read the Scriptures with him comm on Eccl iv 14 v 3 Onomastica Sacra 90 12 Another teacher is called Baranina ie Bar Ḥanina of Tiberias He acquainted Jerome with a mass of Hebrew traditions some of which referred especially to his native place Tiberias He came at night only and sometimes being afraid to come himself he sent a certain Nicodemus Epistolæ lxxxiv 3 i 520 A third teacher who may be called Chaldæus taught Jerome Aramaic which was necessary for the Old Testament passages and the books of the Apocrypha written in that language This teacher of Aramaic was very prominent among the Jews and Jerome who had great difficulty in learning Aramaic was very well satisfied with his instruction prefaces to Tobit and Daniel Jerome continued to study with Jews during the forty years that he lived in Palestine comm on Nahum ii 1 a quibus Judæis non modico tempore eruditus His enemies frequently took him to task for his intercourse with the Jews but he answered: How can loyalty to the Church be impaired merely because the reader is informed of the different ways in which a verse is interpreted by the Jews Contra Rufinum ii 476 This sentence characterizes the Jewish exegesis of that time Jerome’s real intention in studying the Hebrew text is shown in the following sentence: Why should I not be permitted for the purpose of confuting the Jews to use those copies of the Bible which they themselves admit to be genuine Then when the Christians dispute with them they shall have no excuse ib book iii ed Vallarsi ii 554 His Knowledge of Hebrew Jerome’s knowledge of Hebrew is considerable only when compared with that of the other Church Fathers and of the general Christian public of his time His knowledge was really very defective Although he pretends to have complete command of Hebrew and proudly calls himself a trilinguis being conversant with Latin Greek and Hebrew he did not in spite of all his hard work attain to the proficiency of his simple Jewish teachers But he did not commit those errors into which the Christians generally fell as he himself says: The Jews boast of their knowledge of the Law when they remember the several names which we generally pronounce in a corrupt way because they are barbaric and we do not know their etymology And if we happen to make a mistake in the accent the pronunciation of the word as affected by the vowels and in the length of the syllables lengthening short ones and shortening long ones they laugh at our ignorance especially as shown in aspiration and in some letters pronounced with a rasping of the throat comm on Titus iii 9 Jerome not only acquired the peculiar hissing pronunciation of the Jews but he also—so he declares—corrupted his pronunciation of Latin thereby and ruined his fine Latin style by Hebraisms preface to book iii comm on Galatians Epistolæ xxix 7 ed Vallarsi i 143 This statement of Jerome’s is not to be taken very seriously however In his voluminous works Jerome transcribed in Latin letters a mass of Hebrew words giving thereby more or less exact information on the pronunciation of Hebrew then current But although he studied with the Jews his pronunciation of Hebrew can not therefore be unhesitatingly regarded as that of the Jews because he was led by the course of his studies by habit and by ecclesiastical authority to follow the Septuagint in regard to proper names and this version had long before this become Christian Jerome shared the belief of the Hebrews and of most of the Church Fathers that Hebrew was the parent of all the other languages Opera vi 730b He sometimes distinguishes Hebrew from Aramaic preface to Tobit but sometimes appears to call both Syriac In reference to Isa xix 18 comm ad loc comp Epistolæ cviii he speaks also of the Canaanitish language as being closely related to Hebrew and still spoken in five cities of Egypt meaning thereby either Aramaic or Syriac In explaining yemim Gen xxxvi 24 he correctly states in regard to the Punic language that it was related to Hebrew Quæstiones Hebraicæ in Genesin His knowledge of Hebrew appears most clearly in his two important works that on the Hebrew proper names and that on the situation of the places mentioned in the Bible in his extensive commentaries on most of the books of the Old Testament and especially in his chief work the new Latin translation of the Bible from the Hebrew original see Vulgate Through these works he not only became an authority on the Bible during his lifetime but he remained a leading teacher of Christianity in the following ages because down to very recent times no one could go direct to the original text as he had done Jerome’s importance was recognized by the Jewish authors of the Middle Ages and he is frequently cited by David Ḳimḥi also by Abu al-Walid Sefer ha-Shorashim sv and Abraham ibn Ezra on Gen xxxvii 35 Samuel b Meïr on Ex xx 13 Naḥmanides on Gen xli 45 Joseph Albo iii 25 and the polemic Isaac Troki in Ḥizzuḳ Emunah Jerome is also important because he could consult works which have since disappeared as for example Origen’s Hexapla he says that he had seen a copy of the Hebrew Ben Sira but he seems not to have used it he had Aramaic copies of the Apocryphal books Judith and Tobit and the so-called Hebrew Gospel which was written in Hebrew script in the Aramaic language he translated into Greek and Latin Contra Pelagianos iii 2 De Viris Illustribus ch ii comm on Matt xii 13 Exegesis Jerome’s exegesis is Jewish in spirit reflecting the methods of the Palestinian haggadists He expressly states in certain cases that he adopts the Jewish opinion especially when he controverts Christian opponents and errors comm on Joel iv 11: nobis autem Hebræorum opinionem sequentibus he reproduces the Jewish exegesis both in letter comm on Amos v 18-19 and in substance παραφραστικῶς comm on Dan ix 24 Hence he presents Jewish exegesis from the purely Jewish point of view Even the language of the Haggadah appears in his commentaries eg where the explanation is given in the form of question and answer comm on Dan ii 12: quærunt Hebræi or when he says in explaining This it is that is said Hoc est quod dicitur comp or when several opinions are cited on the same subject alii Judæorum or when a disputation is added thereto Epistola xix ad Hedibiam i 55 He even uses technical phrases such as The wise men teach Epistolæ cxxi or One may read comm on Nahum iii 8 This kind of haggadic exegesis which is merely intended to introduce a homiletic remark leads Jerome to accuse the Jews unjustly of being arbitrary in their interpretation of the Bible text But he did not believe that the Jews corrupted the text as Christians frequently accused them of doing While at Rome he obtained from a Jew a synagogue-roll Epistolæ xxxvi 1 because he considered the Hebrew text as the only correct one as the Hebraica veritas which from this time on he regarded as authoritative in all exegetical disputes Jerome hereby laid down the law for Bible exegesis Of course he recognized also some of the faults of Jewish exegesis as for example the forced combination of unconnected verses comm on Isa xliv 15: stulta contentione he sometimes regards his teacher’s interpretation to be arbitrary and opposes to it his own ib xlix 1 Contrary to the haggadic interpretation of the Jews he correctly notices a difference between Hananeel Jer xxxi 38 see comm ad loc and Hanameel ib xxxii 7 Jerome rarely employs simple historical exegesis but like all his contemporaries wanders in the mazes of symbolic allegoric and even mystic exegesis In his commentary on Joel i 4 he adopts the Jewish interpretation according to which the four kinds of locusts mean the four empires Zech iv 2 in which the lamp means the Law its flame the Messiah and its seven branches the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit he interprets entirely mystically Use of Noṭariḳon In his commentary on Eccl i 9 he even teaches the preexistence of all beings including man He frequently uses the NoṬariḳon eg in reference to Zerubbabel comm on Hag i 1 or to Abishag Epistolæ lii i 210 Jerome’s exegesis came in some respects like a revelation to the Christian world and cleared up difficulties in reading the Bible eg his explanation of the Hebrew alphabet Epistola xxx ad Paulam i 144 or that of the ten names of God Epistola xxv ad Marcellam i 128 It must always be remembered that in many portions of his allegorical exegesis Jerome is entirely in agreement with Hellenistic methods for instance in the explanation of the four colors in the sanctuary of the desert Epistola lxiv ad Fabiolam i 364 comp Philo De Monarchia § 2 Josephus B J v 4 § 4 idem Ant iii 7 § 7 Jerome’s commentaries are of small value for Old Testament criticism on account of the inclination to allegorize which leads him to a free treatment of the text as well as on account of his polemics against Judaism comp Jew Encyc iv 81 sv Church Fathers Traditions Jerome’s works are especially important for Judaism because of the numerous Jewish traditions found in them particularly in his work Quæstiones Hebraicæ in Genesin Jerome designates by the general name tradition all supplementary and edifying stories found in the Midrash and relating to the personages and events of the Bible these stories may fitly be designated as historic haggadah Here also Jerome affirms that he faithfully reproduces what the Jews have told him comm on Amos iv 16: hoc Hebræi autumant et sicut nobis ab ipsis traditum est nostris fideliter exposuimus He designates the Jewish legend of Isaiah’s martyrdom as an authentic tradition comm on Isa lvii 1: apud cos certissima traditio while he doubts the story of Jeremiah’s crucifixion because there is no reference to it in Scripture comm on Jer xi 18 Jerome often remarks that a certain story is not found in Scripture but only in tradition comm on Isa xxii 15 and that these traditions originated with the magistri ie the Rabbis comm on Ezek xlv 10 that these fables are incorporated into the text on the strength of one word comm on Dan vi 4 and that many authors are cited to confirm this tradition All these remarks exactly characterize the nature of the Haggadah Jerome apparently likes these traditions though they sometimes displease him and then he contemptuously designates them as fabulæ or Jewish fables ridiculous fables comm on Ezek xxv 8 ridiculous things on Eccl iii 1 or cunning inventions on Zech v 7 Jerome’s opinion of these traditions is immaterial at the present time The important point is that he quotes them for thereby the well-known traditions of the Midrash are obtained in Latin form and in this form they are sometimes more concise and comprehensible—in any case they are more interesting Moreover many traditions that appear from the sources in which they are found to be of a late date are thus proved to be of earlier origin Jerome also recounts traditions that are no longer found in canonical Jewish sources as well as some that have been preserved in the Jewish and Christian Apocrypha It is furthermore interesting to note that Jerome had read some of these traditions hence they had been committed to writing in his time Although other Church Fathers quote Jewish traditions none equal Jerome in the number and faithfulness of their quotations This Midrash treasure has unfortunately not yet been fully examined scholars have only recently begun to investigate this field Nor have Jerome’s works been properly studied as yet in reference to the valuable material they contain on the political status of the Jews of Palestine their social life their organization their religiousviews their Messianic hopes and their relations to Christians Jerome was no friend to the Jews although he owed them much he often rebukes them for their errors reproaches them for being stiff-necked and inimical to the Christians controverts their views in the strongest terms curses and reviles them takes pleasure in their misfortune and even uses against them both the books that he has cunningly obtained from them and the knowledge he has derived therefrom Thus Jews and Christians agree that he is eminent only for his scholarship and not for his character See Church Fathers Bibliography: O Zöckler Hieronymus Sein Leben und Sein Wirken Gotha 1865 A Thierry St Jérôme Paris 1867 1875 Grützmacher Hieronymus part i Leipsic 1901 Nowack Die Bedeutung des Hieronymus für die A T Textkritik 1875 pp 6-10 S Krauss in Magyar Zsidó Szémle 1890 vii passim idem in J Q R vi 225-261 M Rahmer Die Hebräischen Traditionen in den Werken des Hieronymus i Breslau 1861 ii Berlin 1898 idem in Ben Chananja vii idem in Monatsschrift 1865 1866 1867 1868 idem in Grätz Jubelschrift Siegfried Die Aussprache des Hebräischen bei Hieronymus in Stade’s Zeitschrift iv 34-82 Spanier Exegetische Beiträge zu Hieronymus Bern 1897 W Bacher Eine Angebliche Lücke im Hebräischen Wissen des Hieronymus in Stade’s Zeitschrift xxii 114-116 1
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